In January 2025, the M23, a Congolese rebel group backed by Rwanda, took control of the city of Goma. It then went on to seize large portions of territory in South Kivu Province. The militia, founded in 2012, resurfaced late 2021 in North Kivu Province, where it long remained in hiding amidst the dense forests of Virunga National Park's (VNP) mountains. Over the last four years, the renewed conflict has not only unleashed a humanitarian disaster; it is also driving significant environmental destruction on protected areas across North and South Kivu.

In this contribution, we outline some of the key environmental consequences of the crisis, in particular on gorillas, and examine how various armed groups have contributed to environmental destruction. We also explore ways forward to mitigate the damage and improve the situation.

An environmental and human tragedy unfolds

The resurgence of M23 has driven over 800,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) to seek refuge in and around Goma, with a dramatic humanitarian crisis unfolding. This massive displacement also led to rapid tree cover loss in the Southern Sector of Virunga National Park, where many IDPs have been left with little or no choice to collect firewood and timber in order to meet their livelihood needs, despite the major risks involved. Our analysis reveals a tree cover loss of 1,222 hectares in this area for 2023 alone (compared to a yearly average of 571 ha between 2019 and 2022).

Virunga has historically served as a charcoal production hotspot to meet the ever-growing energy needs of Goma's two million inhabitants. For many years, the 'makala' (the Swahili name for charcoal) from VNP also supplied the city of Bukavu, the capital of South Kivu. This started to change in late 2022, as M23 extended its presence across the park's southern sector - its main charcoal production zone. Producing and transporting charcoal from VNP became extremely challenging, leading suppliers to reinvent their supply chains. The influx of IDPs in Goma and increased demand for cooking fuels also caused charcoal prices to soar. As a result, in early 2023, charcoal production in the highland sector of neighbouring Kahuzi-Biega National Park (KBNP) took off, following the construction of two informal ports on the southern shores of Lake Kivu. At this point, makala from Kahuzi-Biega started to feed both Bukavu and Goma. Our analysis shows a tree cover loss of 1171 ha in 2023, almost a nine-fold increase compared to 2022 (131 ha).

The impact of the crisis on gorilla conservation

In both parks, which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the presence of the rebels tremendously complicates law enforcement and wildlife monitoring. Eco-guards are unable to carry out patrols in M23-occupied areas. This makes it difficult to assess the impacts of the conflict on mammal populations, including two gorilla subspecies. Virunga is home to one-third of the last mountain gorillas remaining in the wild, while Kahuzi-Biega is a critical sanctuary for eastern lowland gorillas. The most recent episode of the conflict threatens to undo decades of conservation efforts, in particular for the latter species.

In Virunga, the endangered mountain gorillas, while few in number (1063 individuals), have benefitted from massive international attention and intensive conservation efforts over the last decade and maintained a relatively stable population. In contrast, eastern lowland gorillas count more individuals: the most recent survey suggests the population is just under 7,000. Yet, they are experiencing a far more rapid population decline, as highlighted by their critically endangered status on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.

The latter species can be found in the highland sector of KBNP, an area largely isolated from the rest of the park and currently facing a wave of massive exploitation. As the frontline advances, the gorillas' habitat is shrinking rapidly. This highlights the growing threat for one of the world's most endangered primates, and the relative powerlessness of park authorities and eco-guards in a setting where the state's monopoly of violence has completely broken down.

The role of armed actors in the destruction

Our research shows that armed actors are central to environmental changes taking place in the region. M23 has had a significant and deleterious impact on tree cover in the park - both by driving refugee displacements and through its involvement with the illegal timber trade. Yet, this is just one part of the story: when it seized control of the majority of the Southern sector of Virunga late 2022, M23 enforced a strict ban on charcoal production, under environmental pretenses. The group claims it is protecting the park from exploitation by rival armed groups.

While this might appear surprising upon first inspection, there are actually strong incentives for M23 to support conservation efforts in VNP, at least discursively. First, the group aims to present itself as a credible source of authority and 'good governance'. Given Virunga's high international profile, being associated with the destruction of such a renowned protected area could seriously damage its reputation. Moreover, Rwanda, M23's main support, is heavily dependent on its tourism industry. Gorilla trekking in Volcanoes National Park, which borders Virunga, is a major contributor of this industry. Failing to protect the mountain gorilla populations that freely circulate across both parks could jeopardize Rwanda's economy and reputation. Lastly, Virunga provides important public services such as electricity, through its subsidiary company Virunga Energies, and water. As M23 attempts to setup a viable administration, it will need a strong public support base, which necessitates the provision of public services to the population. The result is that M23's strategic interests coincide with those of Virunga, in some ways.

In South Kivu, Kahuzi-Biega finds itself in a more fragile position. The park is currently at the heart of crossfires between M23 troops and government soldiers which fight alongside the Wazalendo (Swahili for patriot) militia. While armed groups have long been involved in resource exploitation in KBNP, the arrival of M23 in the region led to a massive increase in exploitation. Armed actors on both sides of the conflict benefit from this exploitation, mainly by taxing trade routes. The production of makala soared to such an extent in the first half of 2025 that charcoal prices were slashed by up to 50 % in Bukavu markets - according to our local sources. This can be explained two-fold. First, M23 confiscated the eco-guards' weapons upon arriving at the park headquarters. This has made it impossible for the guards to prevent and sanction illegal charcoal exploitation within the park. Second, much of the park's highland sector remains highly contested, frequently changing hands between M23 and pro-Kinshasa militias. It is therefore difficult to attribute the destruction of any zone of the park to any specific actor - including M23. Coupled with the fact the park is less well-known than Virunga, this reduces the incentive for M23 to prioritize its protection.

What can be done to improve the situation?

While there are no easy answers, there are some avenues to improve the situation. First of all, we believe park authorities and their international partners ultimately need to negotiate with the various armed actors involved in and/or enabling and profiting from the destruction. This will be no simple task. Yet, there are some encouraging precedents: during the Congo Wars of the early 1990s and 2000s, the authorities of Kahuzi-Biega National Park were able to, at points, negotiate with different belligerent parties to protect gorillas. Such a strategy could once again help conservation law enforcement resume as soon as the security context allows.

And indeed there are some promising signs that dialogue with M23 could be possible. As discussed, the group imposed a charcoal production ban in Virunga in late 2022. More recently, on June 4^th, 2025, the new governor of South Kivu appointed by M23 issued a press release strictly banning the trade of bushmeat, charcoal, timber or any product originating from KBNP. It remains to be seen whether this actually translates into action. As seen in Virunga, M23 is no stranger to double standards, often making public commitments that it then fails to uphold. Nevertheless, the rhetorical commitment to conservation is a step in the right direction.

Second, credible alternatives to charcoal, both as a cooking fuel and an economic activity, must be provided at scale to reduce the incentives to exploit the park. In this sense, Virunga's conservation model is an encouraging example of how local economic development can contribute to environmental protection. Virunga Energies was established in 2013 to meet local energy needs and stimulate economic activity. It currently supplies up to 80 % of Goma's customers thanks to three hydro-electric plants. The profits contribute to Virunga's conservation activities, while reducing neighbouring communities' dependency on park exploitation and other illicit activities for income generation. Alongside job creation, Virunga is also paving the way for a transition to cleaner cooking fuels. In 2022, Virunga Energies distributed over 1,000 Electric Pressure Cookers which helped beneficiaries reduce their charcoal consumption by up to 35 %.

Third, delivering such projects at scale demands significant investment. Additional funding will be needed to rehabilitate the areas of Virunga and Kahuzi-Biega that have been destroyed since the conflict started. The dismantling of USAID and development aid funding cuts in various European countries have no doubt made this more difficult. Virunga and Kahuzi-Biega National Parks have themselves received significant funding from USAID at points. Filling the gap left by the Americans will require significant alternative funding to be sourced. But more money alone will not suffice.

The proposals we highlight above can go some way to slowing, and ultimately halting, the destruction of the flora and fauna in eastern DRC's protected areas. However, as long as the conflict rages, progress will likely remain elusive. Peace in eastern DRC should be seen to be as critical for the protection of the environment as it is for the well-being of its people.

Lara Collart and Fergus O'Leary Simpson

Original publication:
Simpson, F. O., Collart, L & Masselink, J. (2025) The environmental toll of the M23 conflict in eastern DRC (Analysis). Mongabay, 7 March 2025.

Further references
https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/humanitarian-lifeline-dr-congo-under-threat-we-need-urgent-action
https://virunga.org/fr/wildlife/primates/mountain-gorillas/conservation/
https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/great_apes/gorillas/eastern_lowland_gorilla/#:~:text=Population%20%26%20distribution&text=Until%20the%20mid%2D1990s%2C%20the,of%20their%20former%20geographic%20range
https://x.com/bwindja/status/1930631305793884492
https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/01/virunga-congo-conservation-jobs-sustainability/
https://fundinnovation.dev/projects/la-cuisson-a-l-electricite-au-secours-de-la-deforestation-dans-le-parc-national-des-virunga
https://fr.mongabay.com/2025/02/repenser-les-strategies-de-financement-des-ong-en-rdc-apres-la-suspension-de-lusaid/