Literature

We can only provide selected references, especially new ones. We cannot send you any copies of books and articles about gorillas, please contact a library.

Gorillas

  • Books

    Arcus Foundation (2014) Extractive industries and ape conservation. State of the Apes. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arcus Foundation (2015) State of the Apes - Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arcus Foundation (2018) State of the Apes – Infrastructure Development and Ape Conservation. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arcus Foundation (2020) State of the Apes Volume IV: Killing, Capture, Trade and Conservation. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Beck, B. B. et al. (eds.) (2001) Great Apes & Humans. Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian Institution Press)

    Bourne, G. H. & Cohen, M. (1975) The gentle giants. New York (Putnam's Sons).

    Caldecott, J. & Miles, L. (eds.) (2005) World Atlas of Great Apes. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London (University of California Press).

    Dixson, A. F. (1981) The natural history of the gorilla. New York (Columbia University Press).

    Eckhart, G. & Lanjouw, A. (2008) Mountain Gorillas: biology, conservation, and coexistence. Baltimore (The Johns Hopkins University Press).

    Fossey, D. (1983) Gorillas in the mist. London (Hodder and Stoughton).

    Galdikas, B. M. F. et al. (eds.) (2001) All apes great and small. Vol. 1: African apes. New York (Kluwer Acad./Plenum).

    Goodall, A. (1979) The wandering gorillas. London (Collins).

    Groves, C. P. (1970) Gorillas. New York (Arco).

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (2007) Gorilla society: conflict, compromise, and cooperation between the sexes. Chicago, London (University of Chicago Press).

    Harvey, M. & Farris-Toussaint, L. (2008) Gorillas. The Gentle Giants. Evans Mitchell Books.

    Jones, C. & Sabater Pi, J. (1971) Comparative ecology of Gorilla gorilla (Savage and Wyman) and Pan troglodytes (Blumenbach) in Rio Muni, West Africa). Basel (Karger).

    Maple, T. & Hoff, M. P. (1982) Gorilla behavior. New York (Van Nostrand Reinhold).

    Parker, S. T. (eds.) (1999) The mentalities of gorillas and orangutans. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Prince-Hughes, D. (2001) Gorillas among us. A primate ethnographer's book of days. Tucson (University of Arizona Press).

    Robbins, M. M. & Boesch, C. (eds.) (2011) Among African Apes. Stories and photos from the field. Berkeley (University of California Press).

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) (2001) Mountain Gorillas. Three Decades of Research at Karisoke. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Russon, A. & Wallis, J. (eds.; 2014) Primate Tourism: A Tool for Conservation? Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Schaller, G. B. (1963) The mountain gorilla. Chicago (Chicago University Press).

    Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) (2003) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Tuttle, R. H. (1986) Apes of the world. Noyes, Park Ridge.

    Yamagiwa, J. & Karczmarski, L. (eds.) (2014) Primates and Cetaceans: Field Research and Conservation of Complex Mammalian Societies (Primatology Monographs). Springer.

  • Anatomy

    Abitbol, M. M. (1991) Ontogeny and evolution of pelvic diameters in anthropoid primates and in Australopithecus afarensis (AL 288-1). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 85, 135-148.

    Barks, S. K. et al. (2015) Brain Organization of Gorillas Reflects Species Differences in Ecology. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 156, 252-262.

    Breuer, T. et al. (2012) Phenotypic correlates of male reproductive success in western gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution 62, 466-472.

    Caillaud, D. et al. (2008) Influence of male morphology on male mating status and behavior during interunit encounters in western lowland gorillas. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 135, 379-388.

    Dean, M. C. et al. (1992) The natural history of tooth wear, continuous eruption and periodontal disease in wild shot great apes. J. hum. Evol. 22, 23-39.

    Ellis, R. A. & Montagna, W. (1962) The skin of the primates. VI. The skin of the gorilla. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 20, 79-94.

    Fischer, R. B. et al. (1982) Evidence of laterality in the lowland gorilla. Perceptual and Motor Skills 54, 1093-1094.

    Gould, K. G. & Martin, D. E. (1981) The female ape genital tract and its secretions. Pp. 105-125 in: Graham, D. (ed.) Reproductive biology of the great apes: comparative and biomedical perspectives. New York (Academic Press).

    Gregory, W. K. (Hrsg.) (1950) The anatomy of the gorilla. New York (Columbia University Press).

    Hall-Craggs, E. C. B. (1962) The testis of Gorilla gorilla beringei. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 139, 511-514.

    Hill, W. C. O. & Matthews, L. H. (1949) The male external genitalia of the gorilla, with remarks on the os penis of other Hominoidea. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 119, 363-378.

    Ishida, H. et al. (1975) Patterns of bipedal walking in anthropoid primates. Proceedings of the Symposia of the 5th Congress of the International Primatological Society, Tokyo, 287-302.

    Jabbour, R. S. & Pearman, T. L. (2016) Geographic variation in gorilla limb bones. Journal of Human Evolution 95, 68-79.

    L'Engle Williams, F. & Roban, R. (2007) Ontogeny and phylogeny of the pelvis in Gorilla, Pongo, Pan, Australopithecus and Homo. Folia primatologica 78, 99-117.

    Leutenegger, E. & Kelly, J. T. (1977) Relationship of sexual dimorphism in canine size and body size to social, behavioral and ecological correlates in anthropoid primates. Primates 18, 117-136.

    Leigh, S. L. et al. (2003) Morphological differentiation in Gorilla subspecies. Pp. 104-131 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    McGrath, K. et al. (2022) Facial asymmetry tracks genetic diversity among Gorilla subspecies. Proceedings Royal Society B 289, 20212564.

    Nadler, R. D. (1975) Cyclity in tumescence of the perineal labia of female lowland gorillas. Anatomical Record 181, 791-797.

    Noback, C. R. (1939) The changes in the vaginal smears and associated cyclic phenomena in the lowland gorilla. Anatomical Record 73, 209-225.

    O'Higgins, P. et al. (1990) Patterns of cranial sexual dimorphism in certain groups of extant hominoids. Journal of Zoology 222, 399-420.

    Rothschild, B. M. & Rühli, F. J. (2005) Comparison of arthritis characteristics in lowland Gorilla gorilla and mountain Gorilla beringei. American Journal of Primatology 66, 205-218.

    Sakka, M. (1986) Sexual dimorphism in great apes: The skull of the gorilla. Symp. of the Society for the Study of Human Biology 24, 79-103.

    Schultz, A. H. (1950) Morphological observations on gorillas. Pp. 227-254 in: Gregory, W. K. (ed.) The anatomy of the gorilla. New Yoork (Columbia Univ. Press).

    Steiner, P. E. (1954) Anatomical observations on a Gorilla gorilla. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 12, 145-180.

    Stumpf, R. M. et al. (2003) Patterns of diversity in gorilla cranial morphology. Pp. 35-61 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Tuttle, R. H. & Watts, D. P. (1985) The positional behavior and adaptive complexes of Pan gorilla. Pp. 261-288 in: Kondo, S. et al. (eds.) Primate locomotor behavior, morphophysiology, and bipedalism. Tokyo (Tokyo University Press).

  • Censuses, threats, conservation

    Akenji, L et al. (2019) Community-Based Monitoring of Cross River Gorillas in South West Region, Cameroon. African Primates 13, 29-38.

    Ammann, K. (2001) Bushmeat hunting and the great apes. Pp. 71-85 in: Beck, B. B. et al. (eds.) Great Apes & Humans. Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian Institution Press).

    Archabald, K. & Naughton-Treves, L. (2001) Tourism revenue-sharing around national parks in western Uganda: early efforts to identify and reward local communities. Environmental Conservation 28, 135-149.

    Arcus Foundation (2014) Extractive industries and ape conservation. State of the Apes. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arcus Foundation (2015) State of the Apes - Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arcus Foundation (2018) State of the Apes – Infrastructure Development and Ape Conservation. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arcus Foundation (2020) State of the Apes Volume IV: Killing, Capture, Trade and Conservation. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Arnhem, E. et al. (2008) Selective logging, habitat quality and home range use by sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees: a case study from an active logging concession in southeast Cameroon. Folia primatologica 79, 1-14.

    Aveling, C. & Aveling, R. (1981) Mountain gorilla project: Progress report 4. Oryx 16, 135-137.

    Aveling, C. & Aveling, R. (1989) Gorilla conservation in Zaire. Oryx 23, 64-70.

    Aveling, C. & Harcourt, A. H. (1984) A census of the Virunga gorillas. Oryx 18, 8-13.

    Aveling, R. & Aveling, C. (1987) Report from the Zaire gorilla conservation project. Primate Conservation 8, 162-164.

    Bachmann, M. E. et al. (2020) Saving rodents, losing primates - Why we need tailored bushmeat management strategies. People and Nature 2020, 1 14.

    Baumgärtel, W. (1959) The last British gorillas. Geographical Magazine, London, 32, 32-41.

    Bernhard, K. P. (2021) Effects of integrated conservation-development projects on unauthorized resource use in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda: a mixed-methods spatio-temporal approach. Oryx 55 (4), 613-624.

    Bergl, R. A. et al. (2012) Remote sensing analysis reveals habitat, dispersal corridors and expanded distribution for the Critically Endangered Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli. Oryx 46, 278-289.

    Bermejo, M. (1999) Status and conservation of primates in Odzala National Park, Republic of the Congo. Oryx 33, 323-331.

    Blake, S. et al. (1995) Swamp gorillas in northern Congo. Afr. J. Ecol. 33, 285-290.

    Blom, A. et al. (2001) A survey of the apes in the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic. African Journal of Ecology 39, 98-105.

    Blom, A. et al. (2004) Human impact on wildlife populations within a protected Central African forest. African Journal of Ecology 42, 8-22.

    Blom, A. et al. (2005) Factors influencing the distribution of large mammals within a protected central African forest. Oryx 39, 381-388.

    Bowen-Jones, E. & Pendry, S. (1999) The threat to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in Africa, and how this threat could be diminished. Oryx 33, 233-246.

    Bützler, W. (1980) Présence et répartition des gorilles au Cameroun. Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 28, 69-79.

    Butsic, V. et al. (2015) Conservation and conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo: The impacts of warfare, mining, and protected areas on deforestation. Biological Conservation 191, 266-273.

    Butynski, T. (1991) Status, distribution and conservation of the mountain gorilla in the gorilla game reserve, Uganda. Gorilla Conservation News 5, 26-27.

    Butynski, T. (2001) Africa's great apes. Pp. 3-56 in: Beck, B. B., et al. (eds.) Great Apes & Humans. Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian Institution Press).

    Caldecott, J. & Miles, L. (eds.) (2005) World Atlas of Great Apes. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London (University of California Press).

    Carroll, R. W. (1986) Status of the lowland gorilla and other wildlife in the Dzanga-Sangha region of southwestern Central African Republic. Primate Conservation 7, 38-41.

    Carroll, R. W. (1988) Relative density, range extension, and conservation potential of the lowland gorilla in the Dzanga-Sangha region of southwestern Central African Republic. Mammalia 52, 311-323.

    Carvalho, J. S. et al. (2021) Predicting range shifts of African apes under global change scenarios. Diversity and Distributions 27 (9), 1663–1679.

    Cousins, D. (1978) Man's exploitation of the gorilla. Biological Conservation 13, 287-297.

    Cousins, D. (1983) Man's affiliation with the anthropoid apes in Africa. Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 77, 19-40.

    DeGroot, T. L. et al. (2023) Human impacts on mammal communities in Rio Campo Nature Reserve, Equatorial Guinea. African Journal of Ecology 61, 262-276.

    Doumenge, C. (1990) La conservation des écosystèmes forestiers du Zaïre. UICN, Gland, Suisse.

    Dowsett-Lemaire, F. & Dowsett, R. J. (2001) A new population of gorillas Gorilla gorilla and other endangered primates in western Cameroon. African Primates 5 (1 & 2), 3-7.

    Dupain, J. et al. (2004) High chimpanzee and gorilla densities in a non-protected area on the northern periphery of the Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon. Oryx 38, 209-216.

    Emlen, J. T. & Schaller, G. B. (1960) Distribution and status of the mountain gorilla, 1959. Zoologica New York 45, 41-52.

    Etiendem, D. N. et al. (2013) The Cross River Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli) at Mawambi Hills, South-West Cameroon: Habitat Suitability and Vulnerability to Anthropogenic Disturbance. Folia Primatologica 84, 18-31.

    Fa, J. E. et al. (2015) Correlates of bushmeat in markets and depletion of wildlife. Conservation Biology 29, 805-815.

    Fay, M. (1989) Partial completion of a census of the western lowland gorilla in southwestern Central African Republic. Mammalia 53, 203-215.

    Fay, J. M. & Agnagna, M. (1992) Census of gorillas in northern Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology 27, 275-284.

    Foerster, S. et al. (2012) Correlates of bushmeat hunting among remote rural households in Gabon, Central Africa. Conservation Biology 26, 335-344.

    Garcia, J. E. & Mba, J. (1997) Distribution, status and conservation of primates in Monte Alen National Park, Equatorial Guinea. Oryx 31, 67-76.

    Gatti, S. et al. (2004) Population and group structure of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Lokoué, Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology 63, 111-123.

    Glew, L. & Hudson, M. D. (2007) Gorillas in the midst: the impact of armed conflict on the conservation of protected areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Oryx 41, 140-150.

    Gonzalez-Kirchner J. P. (1997) Census of western lowland gorilla population in Río Muni region, Equatorial Guinea. Folia zoologica 46, 15-22.

    Goodall, A. G. & Groves, C. P. (1977) The conservation of eastern gorillas. Pp. 599-637 in: Bourne, G. H. (ed.) Primate conservation. New York (Academic Press).

    Granjon, A.-C. et al. (2020) Estimating abundance and growth rates in a wild mountain gorilla population (advance online). Animal Conservation.

    Gray, M. et al. (2010) Censusing the mountain gorillas in the Virunga Volcanoes: complete sweep method versus monitoring. African Journal of Ecology 48 (3), 588-599. 

    Gray, M. et al. (2013) Genetic census reveals increased but uneven growth of a critically endangered mountain gorilla population. Biological Conservation 158, 230-238.

    Groom, A. F. G. (1973/74) Squeezing out the mountain gorilla. Oryx 12, 207-215.

    Guschanski, K. et al. (2009) Counting elusive animals: Comparing field and genetic census of the entire mountain gorilla population of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Biological Conservation 142, 290-300.

    Hall, J. S. et al. (1998) Distribution, abundance and conservation status of Grauer's gorilla. Oryx 32, 122-130.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1977) Virunga gorillas - the case against translocations. Oryx 13, 469-472.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1979) F. P. S. mountain gorilla project: progress report 2. Oryx 15, 114-115.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1986) Gorilla conservation: anatomy of a campaign. Pp. 31-46 in: Benirschke, K. (ed.) Primates: the road to self-sustaining populations. New York (Springer).

    Harcourt, A. H. (1996) Is the gorilla a threatened species? How should we judge? Biological Conservation 75, 165-176.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Curry-Lindahl, K. (1978) The F. P. S. mountain gorilla project - a report from Rwanda. Oryx 14, 316-324.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Curry-Lindahl, K. (1979) Conservation of the mountain gorilla and its habitat in Rwanda. Environmental Conservation 6, 143-147.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Fossey, D. (1981) The Virunga gorillas: decline of an 'island' population. African Journal of Ecology 19, 83-97.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Groom, A. F. G. (1972) Gorilla census. Oryx 11, 355-363.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1983) Virunga gorilla population. African Journal of Ecology 21, 139-142.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1980) Gorilla eaters of Gabon. Oryx 15, 248-252.

    Haurez, B. et al. (2014) Western lowland gorilla density and nesting behavior in a Gabonese forest logged for 25 years: implications for gorilla conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 2669-2687.

    Hedwig, D. et al. (2018) A camera trap assessment of the forest mammal community within the transitional savannah‐forest mosaic of the Batéké Plateau National Park, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 56 (4), 777-790.

    Heinicke, S. et al. (2021) Open‐access platform to synthesize knowledge of ape conservation across sites. American Journal of Primatology 83 (1), e23213.

    Inogwabini, B.-I. et al. (2000) Status of large mammals in the mountain sector of Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, in 1996. African Journal of Ecology 38, 269-276.

    Imong, I. S. et al. (2014) Distinguishing ecological constraints from human activity in species range fragmentation: The case of Cross River gorillas. Animal Conservation 17 (4), 323-331.

    Imong, I. S. et al. (2014)  Informing conservation management about structural versus functional connectivity: A case-study of Cross River gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 76 (10), 978-988.

    Ismaila, N. & Maloueki, U. (2021) Gorilla Abundance Estimations within North-East Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, Gabon. Folia Primatologica 92, 103-111.

    Jost Robinson, C. A. et al. (2011) Multi-faceted approaches to understanding changes in wildlife and livelihoods in a protected area: a conservation case study from the Central African Republic. Environmental Conservation 38, 247-255.

    Junker, J. et al. (2012) Recent decline in suitable environmental conditions for African great apes. Diversity and Distributions 18, 1077–1099.

    Junker, J. et al. (2020) A Severe Lack of Evidence Limits Effective Conservation of the World’s Primates. BioScience 70, 794-803.

    Kalpers, J. et al. (2003) Gorillas in the crossfire: population dynamics of the Virunga mountain gorillas over the past three decades. Oryx 37, 326-337.

    Kasereka, B. et al. (2006) Vulnerability of habituated Grauer's gorilla to poaching in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, DRC. African Study Monographs 27 (1), 15-26.

    King, T. et al. (2011) Assessing Initial Reintroduction Success in Long-Lived Primates by Quantifying Survival, Reproduction, and Dispersal Parameters: Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Congo and Gabon. Int. J. Primatol., published online 30 Nov.

    Kleinschroth, F. et al. (2019) Road expansion and persistence in forests of the Congo Basin. Nature Sustainability 628(2), 628–634.

    Köndgen, S. et al. (2008) Pandemic human viruses cause decline of endangered great apes. Current Biology 18, 1-5.

    Macdonald, D. W. et al. (2011) Association of body mass with price of bushmeat in Nigeria and Cameroon. Conservation Biology 25, 1220-1228.

    MacKinnon, J. (1976) Mountain gorillas and bonobos. Oryx 13, 372-382.

    Matthews, A. & Matthews, A. (2004) Survey of gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in southwestern Cameroon. Primates 45, 15-24.

    McNeely, J. A. (2003) Conserving forest biodiversity in times of violent conflict. Oryx 37, 142-152.

    McNeilage, A. et al. (2001) Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: gorilla census 1997. Oryx 35, 39-47.

    McNeilage, A. et al. (2006) Census of the mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei population in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Oryx 40, 419-427.

    Meijaard, E. et al. (2023) Apes and agriculture. Frontiers in Conservation Science 4, 1225911.

    Merz, G. (1991) Conservation of the eastern lowland gorilla. Primate Report 29, 65-70.

    Mfossa D. M. et al. (2022) Distribution, habitat use and human disturbance of gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) in the Ebo forest, Littoral Region, Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology60 (4), 926-945.

    Mitani, M. (1990) A note on the present situation of primate fauna found from south-eastern Cameroon to northern Congo. Primates 31, 625-634.

    Mitani, M. (1991) Present situation of primate fauna found in northern Congo and in southeastern Cameroon in the central Africa. Pp. 43-46 in: Ehara, A. et al. (eds.) Primatology today. Amsterdam (Elsevier).

    Moorhouse, T. P. (2015) The Customer Isn't Always Right - Conservation and Animal Welfare Implications of the Increasing Demand for Wildlife Tourism. PLoS ONE 10 (10), e0138939.

    Morgan, B. J. et al. (2003) Newly discovered gorilla population in the Ebo forest. Littoral Province, Cameroon. International Journal of Primatology 24, 1129-1137.

    Morgan, D. et al. (2006) Ape abundance and habitat use in the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. International Journal of Primatology 27, 147-179.

    Muresherwa, G. et al. (2022) The management of mountain gorilla tourism in Uganda: Are the socio-economic benefits realised? J. transdiscipl. res. S. Afr. 18 (1), a1136.

    Murnyak, D. F. (1981) Censusing the gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park. Biological Conservation 21, 163-176.

    Mwanza, N. & Yamagiwa, J. (1989) A note on the distribution of primates between the Zaire-Lualaba river and the African Rift Valley. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 5-10.

    Mwanza, N. et al. (1989) Conservation of primates in the Kivu district, Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 113-117.

    Ndunda, M. et al. (1988) Conservation of eastern lowland gorillas in the Masisi region, Zaire. Primate conservation 9, 111-113.

    Nkemnyi, M. F. et al. (2013) Making hard choices: balancing indigenous communities livelihood and Cross River gorilla conservation in the Lebialem-Mone Forest landscape, Cameroon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, online November 2012.

    Oates, J. (1996) African primates. IUCN.

    Oates, J. F. (1999) Myth and reality in the rain forest. How conservation strategies are failing in West Africa. Berkeley (University of California Press).

    Oko, R. A. (1991) Distribution and conservation of gorillas and chimpanzees in the Congo. Pp. 47-50 in: Ehara, A. et al. (eds.) Primatology today. Amsterdam (Elsevier).

    Peterson, D. (2003) Eating Apes. Berkeley (The University of California Press).

    Plumptre, A. J. (2003) Lessons learned from on-the-ground conservation in Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Pp. 71-91 in: Price, S. V. (eds.) War and tropical forests. New York (Food Products Press).

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2007) The biodiversity of the Albertine Rift. Biological Conservation 134, 178-194.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2015) Status of Grauer’s gorilla and chimpanzees in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and current distribution and abundance. Report to Arcus Foundation, USAID and US Fish and Wildlife Service.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2016) Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. PLoS ONE 11 (10), e0162697.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2020) Conservation planning for Africa's Albertine Rift: conserving a biodiverse region in the face of multiple threats. Oryx, published online.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2021) Changes in Grauer's gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) and other primate populations in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Oku Community Reserve, the heart of Grauer's gorilla global range. American Journal of Primatology 83 (7), e23288.

    Remis, M. J. (2000) Preliminary assessment of the impacts of human activities on gorillas Gorilla gorilla gorilla and other wildlife at Dzanga-Sangha Reserve, Central African Republic. Oryx 34, 56-65.

    Remis, M. J. & Kpanou, J. B. (2010) Primate and ungulate abundance in response to multi-use zoning and human extractive activities in a Central African Reserve. African Journal of Ecology 49, 70-80.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2011) Extreme Conservation Leads to Recovery of the Virunga Mountain Gorillas. PLoS one 6 (6), e19788.

    Roy, J. et al. (2014) Recent divergences and size decreases of eastern gorilla populations. Biology Letters 10 (11), 20140811.

    Sabater Pí, J. (1981) Exploitation of gorillas in Rio Muni, Republic of Equatorial Guinea, West Africa. Biological Conservation 19, 131-140.

    Sabater Pí, J. & Groves, C. (1972) The importance of higher primates in the diet of the Fang of Rio Muni. Man 7, 239-243.

    Simpson, F. O. & Geenen, S. (2021) Batwa return to their Eden? Intricacies of violence and resistance in eastern DRCongo's Kahuzi-Biega National Park, The Journal of Peasant Studies.

    Spira, S. et al. (2019) The socio-economics of artisanal mining and bushmeat hunting around protected areas: Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Itombwe Nature Reserve, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Oryx 53 (1), 136-144.

    Spira, S. et al. (2019) Understanding ranger motivation and job satisfaction to improve wildlife protection in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Oryx 53 (3), 460-468.

    Steklis, H. D. & Gerald-Steklis, N. (2001) Status of the Virunga mountain gorilla population. Pp. 391-412 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Stokes, E. J. et al. (2010) Monitoring Great Ape and Elephant Abundance at Large Spatial Scales: Measuring Effectiveness of a Conservation Landscape. PLoS ONE 5 (4), e10294.

    Strindberg, S. et al. (2018) Guns, germs, and trees determine density and distribution of gorillas and chimpanzees in Western Equatorial Africa. Science Advances 4, eaar2964.

    Strona, G. et al. (2018) Small room for compromise between oil palm cultivation and primate conservation in Africa. PNAS 115 (35), 8811-8816.

    Sunderland-Groves, J. L. et al. (2003) Surveys of the Cross River gorilla and chimpanzee populations in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. Pp. 129-140 in: Comiskey, J. A. et al. (eds.) Takamanda: the biodiversity of an African rainforest. SI/MAB Series 8. Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian Institution).

    Tagg, N. et al. (2015) Conservation research presence protects: a case study of great ape abundance in the Dja region, Cameroon. Animal Conservation. Animal Conservation 18 (6), 489-498.

    Tagg, N. et al. (2020) Long-term trends in wildlife community structure and functional diversity in a village hunting zone in southeast Cameroon. Biodiversity Conservation 29, 571-590.

    Thalmann, O. et al. (2011) Historical sampling reveals dramatic demographic changes in western gorilla populations. BMC Evolutionary Biology April 1, 2011, 11, 85.

    Tolbert, S. et al. (2019) The Perceived Benefits of Protected Areas in the Virunga-Bwindi Massif. Environmental Conservation 46, Special Issue 1, 76-83.

    Tolbert, S. et al. (2023) Assessing the drivers of illegal resource use to improve wildlife conservation interventions. Biological Conservation 281, 109983.

    Tranquilli, S. et al. (2012) Lack of conservation effort rapidly increases African great ape extinction risk. Conservation Letters 5, 48-55.

    Tranquilli, S. et al. (2014) Protected areas in tropical Africa: Assessing threats and conservation activities. PLoS One 9 (12), e114154.

    Tudge, S. J. et al. (2022) The impacts of human activity on mammals in a community forest near the Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon. Oryx, published online, 1-9.

    Tutin, C. E. G. (2001) Saving the gorillas and chimpanzees of the Congo Basin. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 13, 469-476.

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1984) Nationwide census of gorilla and chimpanzee populations in Gabon. American Journal of Primatology 6, 313-336.

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Vedder, A. (2001) Gorilla conservation and research in Central Africa. Pp. 429-448 in: Weber, W. et al. (eds.) African rain forest ecology & conservation. New Haven, London (Yale University Press).

    Vedder, A. (1987) Status of Gorilla gorilla. Primate Conservation 8, 75-81.

    Vliet, N. van et al. (2014) Bushmeat consumption among rural and urban children from Province Orientale, Democratic Republic of Congo. Oryx 49, 165-174.

    Walsh, P. D. et al. (2003) Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa. Nature 422, 611-614.

    Weber, B. (1985) Le Parc National des Volcans Biosphere Reserve: cooperation between conservation and development. Parks 10 (3), 19-21.

    Weber, A. W. & Vedder, A. (1983) Population dynamics of the Virunga gorillas: 1959-1978. Biological Conservation 26, 341-366.

    White, L. J. T. & Tutin, C. E. G. (2001) Why chimpanzees and gorillas respond differently to logging. Pp. 449-462 in: Weber, W. et al. (eds.) African rain forest ecology & conservation. New Haven, London (Yale University Press).

    Wilkie, D. S. (2001) Bushmeat trade in the Congo Basin. Pp. 86-109 in: Beck, B. B. et al. (eds.) Great Apes & Humans. Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian Institution Press).

    Wilkie, D. S. et al. (2001) The under-financing of protected areas in the Congo Basin: so many parks and so little willingness-to-pay. Biodiversity and Conservation 10, 691-709.

    Williamson, E. A. & Gerald-Steklis, N. (2001) Composition of gorilla Gorilla beringei groups monitored by Karisoke Research Centre, 2001. African Primates 5 (1 & 2), 48-51.

    Williamson, L. & Usongo, L. (1996) Survey of gorillas and chimpanzees in the Reserve de Faune du Dja, Cameroun. African Primates 2 (2), 67-72.

    Willie, J. et al. (2013) Density of herbaceous plants and distribution of western gorillas in different habitat types in south-east Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology 51 (1), 111-121.

    Wilson, R. (1984) The mountain gorilla project: Progress report 6. Oryx 18, 223-229.

    Wilson, J. R. (1987) The mountain gorilla project: Progress report 7, Oryx 21, 266-269.

    Wright, J. H. & Priston, N. E. C. (2010) Hunting and trapping in Lebialem Division, Cameroon: bushmeat harvesting practices and human reliance. Endangered Species Research (1), 1-12.

    Yamagiwa, J. (2003) Bushmeat poaching and the conservation crisis in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Pp. 115-135 in: Price, S. V. (eds.) War and tropical forests. New York (Food Products Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1995) Density of apes and other primates with poor THV undergrowth in Petit Loango Reserve, Gabon. African Study Monographs 16 (4), 181-193.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1989) Distribution and present status of primates in the Kivu district. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 11-21.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1993) A census of the eastern lowland gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park with reference to mountain gorillas in the Virunga region. Biological Conservation 64, 83-89.

  • Evolution, taxonomy, genetics

    Ackermann, R. R. & Bishop, J. M. (2009) Morphological and molecular evidence reveals recent hybridization between gorilla taxa. Evolution 64, 271-290.

    Amato, G. et al. (1999) Molecular systematics for taxonomic placement of a gorilla of uncertain origin. Zoo Biology 18, 429-432.

    Anthony, N. M. et al. (2007) The role of Pleistocene refugia and rivers in shaping gorilla diversity in central Africa. PNAS 104, 20432-20436.

    Arandjelovic, M. & Vigilant, L. (2018) Non-invasive genetic censusing and monitoring of primate populations. Amer. J. Primatol., e22743.

    Arandjelovic, M. et al. (2014) Genetic inference of group dynamics and female kin structure in a western lowland gorilla population (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Primate Biology 1 (1), 29-38.

    Baas, P. et al. (2018) Population-level assessment of genetic diversity and habitat fragmentation in critically endangered Grauer's gorillas. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 165 (3), 565-575.

    Bergl, R. A. & Vigilant, L. (2007) Genetic analysis reveals population structure and recent migration within the highly fragmented range of the Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli). Molecular Ecology 16, 501-516.

    Bergl, R. A. et al. (2008) Effects of habitat fragmentation, population size and gemographic history on genetic diversity: the Cross River gorilla in a comparative context. American Journal of Primatology 70, 848-859.

    Beringe, R. von (1903) Bericht des Hauptmanns von Beringe über seine Expedition nach Ruanda. Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 234-235, 264-266, 296-298, 317-319.

    Borowik, O. A. (1995) Coding chromosomal data for phylogenetic analysis: Phylogenetic resolution of the Pan-Homo-Gorilla trichotomy. Systematic Biology 44, 563-570.

    Borries, C. et al. (2022) Phenotypic Plasticity Rather Than Ecological Risk Aversion or Folivory Can Explain Variation in Gorilla Life History. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 10, 873557.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2004) Dispersed male networks in western gorillas. Current Biology 14, 510-513.

    Breuer, T. et al. (2012) Phenotypic correlates of male reproductive success in western gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution 62, 466-472.

    Butynski, T. M. & Kalina, J. (1990) Taxonomic status of gorillas in the Impenetrable (Bwindi) Forest, Uganda. American Zoologist 30 (4), 73A.

    Casimir, M. J. (1975) Some data on the systematic position of the eastern gorilla population of the Mt. Kahuzi region (Rep. of Zaire). Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie 66, 188-201.

    Clifford, S. L. et al. (2003) Genetic studies of western gorillas. Pp. 269-292 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Clifford, S. L. et al. (2004) Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Molecular Ecology 13, 1551-1565.

    Coolidge, H. J. (1929) A revision of the genus Gorilla. Mem. Harv. Mus. comp. Zool. 50, 295-381.

    Das, R. et al. (2014) Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Eastern Gorilla (Gorilla beringei) and Implications for African Ape Biogeography. Journal of Heredity 105 (6), 846-855.

    Dunn, R. R. et al. (2020) The Internal, External and Extended Microbiomes of Hominins. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 8, article 25.

    Easteal, S. (1991) The relative role of DNA evolution in primates. Molecular Biology and Evolution 8, 115-127.

    Elgart, A. A. (2010) Are the gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park "true" mountain gorillas? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141, 561-570.

    Ferris, S. D. et al. (1981) Evolutionary tree for apes and humans based on cleavage maps of mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 78, 2432-2436.

    Field, D. et al. (1998) Paternity determination in captive lowland gorillas and orangutans and wild mountain gorillas by microsatellite analysis. Primates 39, 199-209.

    Fünfstück, T. et al. (2014) The genetic population structure of wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) living in continuous rain forest. American Journal of Primatology, 76 (9), 868-878.

    Fünfstück, T. & Vigilant, L. (2015) The Geographic Distribution of Genetic Diversity within Gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 77, 974-985.

    Garner, K. J. & Ryder, O. A. (1996) Mitochondrial DNA diversity in gorillas. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 6, 39-48.

    Ghiglieri, M. P. (1987) Sociobiology of the great apes and the hominoid ancestor. Journal of Human Evolution 16, 319-357.

    Ghiglieri, M. P. (1989) Hominoid sociobiology and hominid social evolution. Pp. 370-379 in: Heltne, P. G. & Marquardt, L. A. (eds.) Understanding chimpanzees. Cambridge, Mass. (Harvard University Press).

    Glen, D. R. & Brooks, D. R. (1986) Parasitological evidence pertaining to the phylogeny of the hominoid primates. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 27, 331-354.

    Gogarten, J. F. et al. (2020) Metabarcoding of eukaryotic parasite communities describes diverse parasite assemblages spanning the primate phylogeny. Molecular Ecology Resources 20, 204-215.

    Goldsmith, M. & Taylor, A. (1999) Revision of the genus Gorilla: 70 years after Coolidge. Gorilla Journal 18, 15-17.

    Goodman, M. (1986) Molecular evidence on the ape subfamily Homininae. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research 218, 121-132.

    Groves, C. P. (1970) Population systematics of the gorilla. Journal of Zoology London 161, 287-300.

    Groves, C. P. (1971) Distribution and place of origins of the gorilla. Man 6, 44-51.

    Groves, C. P. (1986) Systematics of the great apes. Pp. 187-217 in: Swindler, D. R. & Erwin, J. (eds.) Comparative primate biology Vol. 1: systematics, evolution and anatomy. New York (Alan R. Liss).

    Groves, C. (1996) Do we need to update the taxonomy of gorillas? Gorilla-Journal 12.

    Groves, C. (2000) What, if anything, is taxonomy? Gorilla-Journal 21, 12-15.

    Groves, C. P. (2001) Primate Taxonomy. Washington, London (Smithsonian Institution Press).

    Groves, C. P. (2001) Why taxonomic stability is a bad idea, or: Why there are so few species of primates (or are there?) Evolutionary Anthropology 10, 192-198.

    Groves, C. P. (2003) A history of gorilla taxonomy. Pp. 15-34 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Groves, C. P. & Stott, K. W. (1979) Systematic relationships of gorillas from Kahuzi, Tshiaberimu and Kayonza. Folia primatologica 32, 161-179.

    Grubb, P. et al. (2003) An assessment of the diversity of African primates. International Journal of Primatology 24, 1301-1357.

    Jabbour, R. S. & Pearman, T. L. (2016) Geographic variation in gorilla limb bones. Journal of Human Evolution 95, 68-79.

    Jensen-Seaman, M. I. & Kidd, K. K. (2001) Mitochondrial DNA variation and biogeography of eastern gorillas. Molecular Ecology 10, 2241-2247.

    Jensen-Seaman, M. I. et al. (2004) Nuclear integrations of mitochondrial DNA in gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 63, 139-147.

    LeMay, N. & Geschwind, N. (1975) Hemispheric differences in the brains of great apes. Brain, Behav. and Evolution 11, 48-52.

    Lukas, D. et al. (2004) Major histocompatibility complex and microsatellite variation in two populations of wild gorillas. Molecular Ecology 13, 3389-3402.

    Matschie, P. (1903) Über einen Gorilla aus Deutsch-Ostafrika. Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde Berlin 253-259.

    McGrath, K. et al. (2022) Facial asymmetry tracks genetic diversity among Gorilla subspecies. Proceedings Royal Society B 289, 20212564.

    Morell, V. (1994) Will primate genetics split one gorilla into two? Science 265, 1661.

    Pawar, H. et al. (2023) Ghost admixture in eastern gorillas. Nature Ecology & Evolution.

    Roy, J. et al. (2014) Fine-scale genetic structure analyses suggest further male than female dispersal in mountain gorillas. BMC Ecology 14, 21.

    Ruvolo, M. et al. (1991) Resolution of the African hominoid trichotomy by use of a mitochondrial gene sequence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA) 88, 1570-1574.

    Ruvolo, M. et al. (1994) Gene trees and hominoid phylogeny. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 8900-8904.

    Saitou, N. & Nei, M. (1986) The number of nucleotides required to determine the branching order of three species with special reference to the human-chimpanzee-gorilla divergence. Journal of Molecular Evolution 24, 189-204.

    Sarmiento, E. E. (2003) Distribution, taxonomy, genetics, ecology, and causal links of gorilla survival: the need to develop practical knowledge for gorilla conservation. Pp. 432-471 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Sarmiento, E. E. et al. (1996) Gorillas of Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest and the Virunga Volcanoes: Taxonomic implications of morphological and ecological differences. American Journal of Primatology 40, 1-21.

    Satta, Y. et al. (2000) DNA archives and our nearest relative: the trichotomy problem revisited. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 14, 259-275.

    Savage, T. S. & Wyman, J. (1847) Notice of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes gorilla, a new species of orang from the Gaboon river, osteology of the same. Boston Journal of Natural History 5, 417-443.

    Scally, A. et al. (2012) Insights into hominid volution from the gorilla genome sequence. Nature 483, 169-175.

    Scally, A. et al. (2013) A Genome-Wide Survey of Genetic Variation in Gorillas Using Reduced Representation Sequencing. PLoS ONE 8 (6), e65066.

    Shea, B. T. (1983) Phyletic size change and brain/body scaling: A consideration based on the African pongids and other primates. International Journal of Primatology 4, 33-62.

    Shea, B. T. (1983) Size and diet in the evolution of African ape craniodental form. Folia Primatologica 40, 32-68.

    Shea, B. T. (1985) Ontogenetic allometry and scaling: A discussion based on the growth and form of the skull in African apes. Pp. 175-205 in: Jungers, W. L. (eds.) Size and scaling in primate biology. New York (Plenum).

    Shea, B. T. (1985) The ontogeny of sexual dimorphism in the African apes. American Journal of Primatology 8, 183-188.

    Sherwood, C. C. et al. (2004) Brain structure variation in great apes, with attention to the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei). American Journal of Primatology 63, 149-164.

    Shoshani, J. et al. (1996) Primate phylogeny: morphological vs molecular results. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution 5, 102-254.

    Sibley, C. G. & Ahlquist, J. E. (1987) DNA hybridization evidence of hominoid phylogeny: Results from an expanded data set. Journal of Molecular Evolution 26, 99-121.

    Smouse, P. E. & Li, W.-H. (1987) Likelihood analysis of mitochondrial restriction-cleavage patterns for the human-chimpanzee-gorilla trichotomy. Evolution 41, 1162-1176.

    Städele, V. et al. (2022) The complex Y-chromosomal history of gorillas. Amer. J. Primatol. e23363.

    Stanford, C. B. (2001) The subspecies concept in primatology: the case of mountain gorillas. Primates 42, 309-318.

    Stumpf, R. M. et al. (2003) Patterns of diversity in gorilla cranial morphology. Pp. 35-61 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Takahata N (1992) Man's place in Hominoidea revealed by mitochondrial DNA genealogy. J. mol. Evol. 35, 32-43.

    Thalmann, O. et al. (2006) The complex evolutionary history of gorillas: insights from genomic data. Mol. Biol. Evol. 24, 146-158.

    Thalmann, O. et al. (2011) Historical sampling reveals dramatic demographic changes in western gorilla populations. BMC Evolutionary Biology April 1, 2011, 11, 85.

    Tocheri, M. W. et al. (2016) The Evolutionary Origin and Population History of the Grauer Gorilla. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 159, S4–S18.

    Tuttle, R. H. (1967) Knuckle-walking and the evolution of hominoid hands. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 26, 171-206.

    Tuttle, R. H. & Basmajian, J. V. (1975) Electromyography of Pan gorilla: an experimental approach to the problem of hominization. Proceedings of the Symposia of the 5th Congress of the International Primatological Society, Tokyo, 303-314.

    van der Valk, T. et al. (2018) Significant loss of mitochondrial diversity within the last century due to extinction of peripheral populations in eastern gorillas. Scientific Reports 8, 6551.

    van der Valk, T. et al. (2019) Historical Genomes Reveal the Genomic Consequences of Recent Population Decline in Eastern Gorillas. Current Biology 29, 165-170.

    van der Valk, T. et al. (2024) Comparative genomic analyses provide new insights into evolutionary history and conservation genomics of gorillas. BMC Ecology and Evolution 24, 14.

    Vigilant, L. & Bradley, B. J. (2004) Genetic variation in gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 64, 161-172.

    Vigilant, L. et al. (2015) Reproductive competition and inbreeding avoidance in a primate species with habitual female dispersal. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 69, 1163-1172.

    Xue, Y. et al. (2015) Mountain gorilla genomes reveal the impact of long-term population decline and inbreeding. Science 348 (6231), 242-245.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2003) Intra-specific variation in social organization of gorillas: implications for their social evolution. Primates 44, 359-369.

    Yohn, C. T. et al. (2005) Lineage-specific expansions of retroviral insertions within the genomes of African great apes but not humans and orangutans. PLoS Biology 3 (4), 577-587.

  • Birth, mother-infant relationship, ontogeny

    Carter, F. S. (1973) Comparison of baby gorillas with human infants at birth and during the postnatal period. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 10th Annual Report, 29-33.

    Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. (1977) A Piagetan model for describing and comparing socialization in monkey, ape and human infants. Pp. 159-187 in: Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. & Poirier, F. E. (eds.) Primate bio-social development. New York (Garland).

    Eckardt, W. et al. (2016) Weaned age variation in the Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): influential factors. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 70, 493-507.

    Fletcher, A. (2001) Development of infant independence from the mother in wild mountain gorillas. Pp. 153-182 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Fossey, D. (1979) Development of the mountain gorilla: The first thirty-six months. In: The great apes, D. A. Hamburg & E. McCown (eds.), Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, pp. 139-184.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2019) Infant handling by female mountain gorillas: Establishing its frequency, function, and (ir)relevance for life history evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 168 (4), 744-749.

    Hoff, M. P. et al. (1981) Development of infant independence in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Dev. Psychobiol. 14, 251-265.

    Hoff, M. P. et al. (1981) The development of infant play in a captive group of lowland gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 1, 65-72.

    Hoff, M. P. et al. (1983) Maternal transport and infant motor development in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Primates 24, 77-85.

    Hughes, J. & Redshaw, M. (1974) Cognitive, manipulative and social skills in gorillas: Part I, the first year. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 11th Annual Report, 53-60.

    Kingsley, S. R. (1988) Physiological development of male orang-utans and gorillas. Pp. 123-131 in: Schwartz, J. H. (eds.) Orang-utan biology. New York (Oxford University Press).

    Manguette, M. L. et al. (2020) Infant survival in western lowland gorillas after voluntary dispersal by pregnant females. Primates, published online.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2021) Social groups buffer maternal loss in mountain gorillas. eLife 10, e62939.

    Nadler, R. D. (1974) Periparturitional behavior of a primiparous lowland gorilla. Primates 15, 55-73.

    Nowell, A. A. & Fletcher, A. W. (2007) Development of independence from the mother in Gorilla gorilla gorilla. International Journal of Primatology 28, 441-455.

    Nowell, A. A. & Fletcher, A. W. (2008) The development of feeding behaviour in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Behaviour 145, 171-193.

    Redshaw, M. (1975) Cognitive, manipulative and social skills in gorillas: Part II, the second year. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 12th Annual Report, 56-60.

    Redshaw, M. (1978) Cognitive development in human and gorilla infants. Journal of Human Evolution 7, 133-141.

    Redshaw, M. (1989) A comparison of neonatal behaviour and reflexes in the great apes. Journal of Human Evolution 18, 191 ff.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2007) Maternal investment of the Virunga Mountain gorillas. Ethology 113, 235-245.

    Robbins, M. M. & Robbins, A. M. (2021) Variability of weaning age in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 174 (4): ajpa.24237, 776-784.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2016) Infant Mortality Risk and Paternity Certainty Are Associated with Postnatal Maternal Behavior toward Adult Male Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). PLoS ONE 11 (2), e0147441.

    Stewart, K. J. (1977) The birth of a wild mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Primates 18, 965-976.

    Stewart, K. J. (1984) Parturition in wild gorillas: behaviour of mothers, neonates, and others. Folia primatologica 42, 62-69.

    Stewart, K. J. (1988) Suckling and lactational anoestrus in wild gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 83, 627-634.

    Stewart, K. J. (2001) Social relationships of immature gorillas and silverbacks. Pp. 183-213 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Vermeer, J. & Devreese, L. (2015) Birth sex ratio, infant mortality and rearing type in captive western lowland gorillas. Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 3 (1), 6-10.

    Watts, D. P. & Hess, J. (1988) Twin birth in wild mountain gorillas. Oryx 22, 5-6.

    Whittier, C. A. et al. (2011) Proximate composition of milk from free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Zoo Biology 30, 308-317.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2009) Infanticide and social flexibility in the genus Gorilla. Primates 50, 293-303.

  • History

    Allen, J. G. (1931) Gorilla hunting in southern Nigeria. Nigerian Field 1, 4-5.

    Baumgärtel, W. (1958) The Muhavura gorillas. Primates 1, 79-83.

    Baumgärtel, W. (1976) Up among the mountain gorillas. New York (Hawthorn Books).

    Beringe, R. von (1903) Bericht des Hauptmanns von Beringe über seine Expedition nach Ruanda. Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 234-235, 264-266, 296-298, 317-319.

    Bingham, H. C. (1932) Gorillas in a native habitat. Carnegie Institute Washington Publication 426, 1-66.

    Brodersen, K. (2001) Savage's Savages. How the Gorilla became a Savage Beast because of Hanno's Periplus. Pp. 87-98 in: Geus, K. et al. (eds.) Punica, Lybica, Ptolemaica: Festschrift für Werner Huß zum 65. Geburtstag. Leuven (Peeters).

    Curry-Lindahl, K. (1956) Ecological studies on mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians in Eastern Belgian Congo. Part 1. Ann. Musée Royal du Congo Belge, Tervuren.

    Donisthorpe, J. (1958) A pilot study of the mountain gorilla. South African Journal of Science 54, 195-217.

    Du Chaillu, P. (1861) Explorations and adventures in equatorial Africa. New York.

    Fossey, D. (1970) Making friends with mountain gorillas. National Geographical Magazine 137, 48-67.

    Fossey, D. (1971) More years with mountain gorillas. National Geographic Magazine 140, 574-585.

    Imanishi, K. (1958) Gorillas: a preliminary survey in 1958. Primates 1 (2), 73-78.

    Kawai, M. & Mizuhara, H. (1962) An ecological study on the wild mountain gorilla. Primates 2, 1-42.

    Meder, A. (1995) Men who named the African apes. Gorilla-Journal 11.

    Merfield, F. G. & Miller, H. (1956) Gorillas were my neighbours. London (Longmans, Green & Co.).

    Merfield, F. G. & Miller, H. (1956) Gorilla hunter. New York (Farrer Strams).

    Newman, J. L. (2013) Encountering Gorillas: A Chronicle of Discovery, Exploitation, Understanding, and Survival. Lanham (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers).

    Pitman, C. R. S. (1931) A game warden among his charges. London.

    Pitman, C. R. S. (1935) The gorillas of the Kayonsa region, western Kigezi, S. W. Uganda. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1935, 477-494.

    Reel, M. (2013) Between Man and Beast: An Unlikely Explorer and the African Adventure that Took the Victorian World by Storm. Hardcover (Doubleday).

    Savage, T. S. & Wyman, J. (1847) Notice of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes gorilla, a new species of orang from the Gaboon river, osteology of the same. Boston Journal of Natural History 5, 417-443.

    Wordsworth, J. (1961) Gorilla mountain. London (Lutterworth).

    Yerkes, R. M. (1927) The mind of a gorilla, part I. Genetic Psychol. Monogr. 2, 1-191.

    Yerkes, R. M. (1927) The mind of a gorilla, part II. Genetic Psychol. Monogr. 2, 377-551.

    Yerkes, R. M. (1928) The mind of a gorilla, part III. Comparative Psychol. Monogr. 5 (2), 1-92.

    Yerkes, R. M. & Yerkes, A. W. (1929) The great apes. London (Oxford University Press).

  • Diseases

    Antonation, K. S. et al. (2016) Bacillus cereus Biovar Anthracis Causing Anthrax in Sub-Saharan Africa - Chromosomal Monophyly and Broad Geographic Distribution. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 10 (9), e0004923.

    Ashford R. W. et al. (1996) Patterns of intestinal parasitism in the mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla in the Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest, Uganda. Journal of Zoology 239 (3), 507-514.

    Ashford, R. W. et al. (1990) The intestinal faunas of man and mountain gorillas in a shared habitat. Ann. trop. Med. Parasitol. 84, 337-340.

    Benirschke, K. & Adams, F. D. (1980) Gorilla diseases and causes of death. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement 28, 139-148.

    Boundenga, L. et al. (2023) A review of Gabonese gorillas and their pathogens: Diversity, transfer and One Health approach to avoid future outbreaks? Front. Parasitol. 2, 1115316.

    Byers, A. C. & Hastings, B. (1991) Mountain gorilla mortality and climatic factors in the Parc National des Volcans, Ruhengeri Prefecture, Rwanda, 1988. Mountain research and development 11 (2), 145-151.

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    Cousins, D. (1982) Dental diseases in the gorilla. International Zoo News 29 (1), No. 175, 10-18.

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    Zimmermann, D. M. (2022) Great ape health watch: Enhancing surveillance for emerging infectious diseases in great apes. American Journal of Primatology 84 (4-5), Special Issue: One Health, e23379.

  • Ecology, feeding, nesting, demography, life history

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    Borries, C. et al. (2022) Phenotypic Plasticity Rather Than Ecological Risk Aversion or Folivory Can Explain Variation in Gorilla Life History. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 10, 873557.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2004) Dispersed male networks in western gorillas. Current Biology 14, 510-513.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2007) Potential for female kin associations in wild western gorillas despite female dispersal. Proceedings of the Royal Society London Series B 274, 2179-2185.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2008) Genetic identification of elusive animals: re-evaluating tracking and nesting data for wild western gorillas. Journal of Zoology 275, 333-340.

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    Doran, D. M. et al. (2002) Western lowland gorilla diet and resource availability: new evidence, cross-site comparisons, and reflections on indirect sampling methods. American Journal of Primatology 58, 91-116.

    Doran, D. M. et al. (2004) Impact of ecological and social factors on ranging in western gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 64, 207-222.

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    Eckardt, W. et al. (2019) Social and ecological factors alter stress physiology of Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Ecology and Evolution 9 (9), 5248-5259.

    Effiom, E. O. et al. (2013) Bushmeat hunting changes regeneration of African rainforests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280, 20130246.

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    Fossey, D. (1974) Observations on the home range of one group of mountain gorillas. Animal behaviour 22, 568-581.

    Fossey, D. & Harcourt, A. H. (1977) Feeding ecology of free-ranging mountain gorillas. Pp. 415-447 in: Clutton-Brock, T. H. (eds.) Primate ecology. London (Academic Press)

    Fünfstück, T. et al. (2014) The genetic population structure of wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) living in continuous rain forest. American Journal of Primatology, 76 (9), 868-878.

    Galbany, J. et al. (2016) Tooth Wear and Feeding Ecology in Mountain Gorillas From Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 159, 457-465.

    Galbany, J. et al. (2017) Body growth and life history in wild mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) from Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 163, 570-590.

    Ganas, J. & Robbins, M. M. (2005) Ranging behavior of the mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: a test of the ecological constraints model. Behav. Ecology and Sociobiology 58, 277-288.

    Ganas, J. et al. (2004) Dietary variability of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology 25, 1043-1072.

    Ganas, J. et al. (2008) Food preferences of wild mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 70, 927-938.

    Gatti, S. et al. (2004) Population and group structure of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Lokoué, Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology 63, 111-123.

    Glowacka, H. et al. (2017) Toughness of the Virunga mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) diet across an altitudinal gradient. Am. J. Primatol. 79, e22661.

    Goldsmith, M. L. (1999) Ecological constraints on the foraging effort of western gorillas at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. International Journal of Primatology 20, 1-23.

    Goldsmith, M. L. (2003) Comparative behavioral ecology of a lowland and highland gorilla population: where do Bwindi gorillas fit? Pp. 358-384 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Goodall, A. G. (1977) Feeding and ranging behaviour of a mountain gorilla group in the Tshibinda-Kahuzi region (Zaire) Pp. 449-479 in: Clutton-Brock, T. H. (eds.) Primate ecology. London (Academic Press).

    Goodall, A. G. (1978) On habitat and home range in eastern gorillas in reaction to conservation. Pp. 81-84 in: Chivers, D. J. & Lane-Petters, W. (eds.) Recent advances in primatology Vol. 2. London (Academic Press).

    Granjon, A.-C. et al. (2020) Estimating abundance and growth rates in a wild mountain gorilla population. Animal Conservation 23 (4), 455-465.

    Grueter, C. C. & Wilson, M. L. (2021) Do we need to reclassify the social systems of gregarious apes? Evolutionary Anthropology 30 (5), 316-326.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2013) Long-Term Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Food Availability for Endangered Mountain Gorillas in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. American Journal of Primatology 75, 267–280.

    Grüter, C. C. et al. (2014) Socioecological correlates of energy balance using urinary C-peptide measurements in wild female mountain gorillas. Physiology & Behavior 127, 13-19.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2016) Causes, mechanisms, and consequences of contest competition among female mountain gorillas in Rwanda. Behavioral Ecology 27 (3), 766-776.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2016) Elevated activity in adult mountain gorillas is related to consumption of bamboo shoots. Journal of Mammalogy 97 (6), 1663-1670.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2018) Quadratic relationships between group size and foraging efficiency in a herbivorous primate. Scientific Reports 8, 16718.

    Hagemann, L. et al. (2019) Long-term inference of population size and habitat use in a socially dynamic population of wild western lowland gorillas. Conservation Genetics 20 (6), 1303-1314.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1981) Demography of Gorilla gorilla. Journal of Zoology London 195, 215-233.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Harcourt, S. A. (1984) Insectivory by gorillas. Folia primatologica 43, 229-233.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1981) Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates. Nature 293, 55-57.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1978) Coprophagy by wild mountain gorillas. East African Wildlife Journal 16, 223-225.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1984) Gorillas' time feeding: aspects of methodology, body size, competition and diet. African Journal of Ecology 22, 207-215.

    Haurez, B. et al. (2015) The role of great apes in seed dispersal of the tropical forest tree species Dacryodes normandii (Burseraceae) in Gabon. Journal of Tropical Ecology 31, 395-402.

    Head, J. S. et al. (2011) Sympatric Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) and Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Loango National Park, Gabon: Dietary Composition, Seasonality, and Intersite Comparisons. International Journal of Primatology 32, 755-775.

    Imong, I. S. et al. (2014) Distinguishing ecological constraints from human activity in species range fragmentation: The case of Cross River gorillas. Animal Conservation 17 (4), 323-331.

    Imong, I. S. et al. (2014) Informing conservation management about structural versus functional connectivity: A case-study of Cross River gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 76 (10), 978-988.

    Iwata, Y. & Ando, C. (2007) Bed and bed-site reuse by western lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) in Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, Gabon. Primates 48, 77-80.

    Junker, J. et al. (2012) Recent decline in suitable environmental conditions for African great apes. Diversity and Distributions 18, 1077-1099.

    Kinani, J.-F. & Zimmerman, D. (2015) Tool Use for Food Acquisition in a Wild Mountain Gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei). American Journal of Primatology 77 (3), 353-357.

    Klailova, M. et al. (2013) Non-Human Predator Interactions with Wild Great Apes in Africa and the Use of Camera Traps to Study Their Dynamics. Folia Primatologica 83, 312-328.

    Kuroda, S. et al. (1996) Sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in the Ndoki Forest, Congo. Pp. 71-81 in: McGrew, W. et al. (eds.) Great ape societies. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Lodwick, J. L. & Salmi, R. (2019) Nutritional composition of the diet of the western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla): Interspecific variation in diet quality. American Journal of Primatology 81 (9), e23044.

    Magliocca, F. et al. (1999) Population structure and group composition of western lowland gorillas in north-western Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology 48, 1-14.

    Magliocca, F. E. & Gautier-Hion, A. (2002) Mineral content as a basis for food selection by western lowland gorillas in a forest clearing. American Journal of Primatology 57, 67-77.

    Mahaney, W. C. et al. (1995) Mountain gorilla geophagy: a possible seasonal behavior for dealing with the effects of dietary changes. International Journal of Primatology 16, 475-488.

    Mahaney, W. C. et al. (1990) Geophagia by mountain gorillas in the Virunga mountains, Rwanda. Primates 31, 113-120.

    Manguette, M. et al. (2019) Intersexual conflict influences female reproductive success in a female-dispersing primate. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 73, 118.

    Manguette, M. L. et al. (2020) Female dispersal patterns influenced by male tenure duration and group size in western lowland gorillas. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 74, article 81.

    Manguette, M. L. et al. (2020) Infant survival in western lowland gorillas after voluntary dispersal by pregnant females. Primates, published online.

    Maruhashi, T. et al. (1991) Primate feeding behavior and seed dispersion in a tropical rain forest in Zaire Pp. 123-124 in: Ehara, A. et al. (eds.) Primatology today. Amsterdam (Elsevier).

    Masi, S. et al. (2009) Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) change their activity patterns in response to frugivory. American Journal of Primatology 71, 91-100.

    Masi, S. et al. (2012) Seasonal Effects on Great Ape Health: A Case Study of Wild Chimpanzees and Western Gorillas. PLoS ONE 7 (12), e49805.

    Masi, S. et al. (2015) The Influence of Seasonal Frugivory on Nutrient and Energy Intake in Wild Western Gorillas. PLoS ONE 10 (7), e0129254.

    Masi, S. et al. (2021) No evidence for female kin association, indications for extragroup paternity, and sex-biased dispersal patterns in wild western gorillas. Ecology and Evolution 00, 1-13.

    McNeilage, A. (2001) Diet and habitat use of two mountain gorilla groups in contrasting habitats in the Virungas. Pp. 265-292 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Mehlmann, P. T. & Doran, D. M. (2002) Influencing western gorilla nest construction at Mondika Reseearch Center. International Journal of Primatology 23, 1257-1285.

    Mitani M. (1992) Preliminary results of the studies on wild western lowland gorillas and other sympatric diurnal primates in the Ndoki Forest, northern Congo. Pp. 215-224 in: Itoigawa M. et al. (eds.) Topics in Primatology Vol. 2: Behavior, ecology and conservation. Univ. of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.

    Mitani, M. et al. (1993) Approaches in density estimates and reconstruction of social groups in a western lowland gorilla population in the Ndoki Forest, Northern Congo. Tropics 2, 219-229.

    Morgan, D. & Sanz, C. (2006) Chimpanzee feeding ecology and comparisons with sympatric gorillas in the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. Pp. 97-122 in: Hohmann, G. et al. (eds.) Feeding ecology in apes and other primates. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Morgan, D. et al. (2016) Factors Influencing the Survival of Sympatric Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) Nests. Int. J. Primatol. 37, 718-737.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2019) Hierarchical social modularity in gorillas. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (1906), 20190681.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2021) Social groups buffer maternal loss in mountain gorillas. eLife 10, e62939.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2022) Cascading effects of social dynamics on the reproduction, survival, and population growth of mountain gorillas. Animal Conservation 26 (3), 398-411.

    Morrison, R. et al. (2023) Cumulative early-life adversity does not predict reduced adult longevity in wild gorillas. Current Biology 33 (11), P2307-2314.E4.

    Mouele, A. M. et al. (2022). Allo-and autocoprophagy events in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). African Journal of Ecology 00, 1-5.

    Ngbolua, K. et al. (2014) Phytochemical investigation and TLC screening for antioxidant activity of 24 plant species consumed by the Eastern Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla beringei ssp. graueri : Hominidae, Primates) endemic to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Journal of Advancement in Medical and Life Sciences 1 (3), 1-6.

    Nishihara, T. (1995) Feeding ecology of western lowland gorillas in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, Congo. Primates 36, 151-168.

    Oelze, V. M. et al. (2014) Niche differentiation and dietary seasonality among sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Loango National Park (Gabon) revealed by stable isotope analysis. Journal of Human Evolution, 66 (1), 95-106.

    Ostrofsky, K. R. & Robbins, M. M. (2020) Fruit-feeding and activity patterns of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2020, 1-18 (early view).

    Parnell, R. J. (2002) Group size and structure in western lowland gorillas at Mbeli Bai, Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology 56, 193-206.

    Petre, C.-A. et al. (2015) Western lowland gorilla seed dispersal: Are seeds adapted to long gut retention times? Acta Oecologica 67, 59-65.

    Petre, C.-A. et al. (2015) Quantity and spatial distribution of seeds dispersed by a western lowland gorilla population in south-east Cameroon. Journal of Tropical Ecology 31, 201-212.

    Poulsen, J. R. & Clark, C. J. (2004) Densities, distributions, and seasonal movements of gorillas and chimpanzees in swamp forests in northern Congo. International Journal of Primatology 25, 285-306.

    Poulsen, J. R. et al. (2001) Seed dispersal by a diurnal primate community in the Dja Reserve, Cameroon. Journal of Tropical Ecology 17, 787-808.

    Remis, M. J. (1993) Nesting behavior of lowland gorillas in the Dzanga-Sangha Reserve, Central African Republic. Tropics 2, 245-255.

    Remis, M. J. (1997) Western lowland gorillas as seasonal frugivores: use of variable resources. American Journal of Primatology 43, 87-109.

    Remis, M. J. (1997) Ranging and grouping patterns of a western lowland gorilla group at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. American Journal of Primatology 43, 111-133.

    Remis, M. J. (2006) The role of taste in food selection by African apes: implications for niche separation and overlap in tropical forests. Primates 47, 56-64.

    Remis, M. J. et al. (2001) Nutritional aspects of western lowland gorilla diet during seasons of fruit scarcity at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. International Journal of Primatology 22, 807-836.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2006) Age-related patterns of reproductive success among female mountain gorillas. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 131, 511-521.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2007) Maternal investment of the Virunga Mountain gorillas. Ethology 113, 235-245.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2013) Impact of male infanticide on the social structure of mountain gorillas. PLoS One 8 (11): e78256.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2014) Variance in the reproductive success of dominant male mountain gorillas. Primates 55 (4), 489-499.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2021) Dissecting the two mechanisms of scramble competition among the Virunga mountain gorillas (advance online). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 75 (5), 82.

    Robbins, M. M. (1995) A demographic analysis of male life history and social structure of mountain gorillas. Behaviour 132, 21-47.

    Robbins, M. M. (2008) Feeding competition and agonistic relationships among Bwindi Gorilla beringei. International Journal of Primatology 29, 999-1018.

    Robbins, M. M. & McNeilage, A. (2003) Home range and frugivory patterns of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology 24, 467-491.

    Robbins, M. M. & Robbins, A. M. (2018) Variation in the social organization of gorillas: Life history and socioecological perspectives. Evolutionary Anthropology 27 (5), 218-233.

    Robbins, M. M. & Robbins, A. M. (2021) Variability of weaning age in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 174 (4): ajpa.24237, 776-784.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2006) Variability of the feeding ecology of eastern gorillas. Pp. 25-47 in: Hohmann, G. et al. (eds.) Feeding ecology in apes and other primates. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2007) Socioecological influences on the reproductive success of female mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Behav. Ecology and Sociobiology 61, 919-931.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2009) Population dynamics of the Bwindi mountain gorillas. Biological Conservation 142, 2886-2895.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2019) Dispersal and reproductive careers of male mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda Primates 60 (2), 133-142.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2022) Dietary variability of western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). PLoS ONE 17 (8), e0271576.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2023) Comparative life history patterns of female gorillas. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 181 (4), 564–574.

    Rogers, E. (1989) The feeding ecology of lowland gorillas in Gabon. Anthroquest 39, 12-14.

    Rogers, M. E. et al. (1990) Gorilla diet in the Lope Reserve, Gabon: A nutritional analysis. Oecologia 844, 326-339.

    Rogers, M. E. et al. (1994) Seasonal feeding on bark by gorillas: an unexpected keystone food? Pp. 37-43 in: Current Primatology Vol. 1. Strasbourg.

    Rogers, M. E. et al. (1998) Lowland gorillas and seed dispersal: the importance of nest sites. American Journal of Primatology 45, 45-68.

    Rogers, M. E. & Williamson, E. A. (1987) Density of herbaceous plants eaten by gorillas in Gabon: Some preliminary data. Biotropica 19, 278-281.

    Rogers, M. E. et al. (1988) Effects of the dry season on gorilla diet in Gabon. Primate Report 22, 25-33.

    Rogers, M. E. et al. (2004) Western gorilla diet: a synthesis from six sites. American Journal of Primatology 64, 173-192.

    Rothman, J. M. et al. (2006) Decaying wood is a sodium source for mountain gorillas. Biology letters 2, 321-324.

    Rothman, J. M. et al. (2006) Plant choice in the construction of night nests by gorillas in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. American Journal of Primatology 68, 361-368.

    Roy, J. et al. (2014) Fine-scale genetic structure analyses suggest further male than female dispersal in mountain gorillas. BMC Ecology 14, 21.

    Ruff, C. B. et al. (2021) Body proportions and environmental adaptation in gorillas. American Journal of Biological Anthropology, 1-29.

    Sabater Pí, J. (1977) Contribution to the study of alimentation of lowland gorillas in the natural state, in Río Muni, Republic of Equatorial Guinea (West Africa). Primates 18, 183-204.

    Sanz, C. et al. (2007) Distinguishing between the nests of sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas. Journal of Applied Ecology 44, 263-272.

    Scarry, C. J. et al. (2023) Long-term home range stability provides foraging benefits in western gorillas. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 181 (2), 296–311.

    Seiler, N. & Robbins, M. M. (2015) Factors Influencing Ranging on Community Land and Crop Raiding by Mountain Gorillas. Animal Conservation.

    Seiler, N. & Robbins, M. M. (2020) Ecological correlates of space use patterns in wild western lowland gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 82 (9), e23168.

    Seiler, N. & Robbins, M. M. (2020) Using long‑term ranging patterns to assess within‑group and between‑group competition in wild mountain gorillas. BMC Ecology 20, 40.

    Sienne, J. M. et al. (2014) Plant Mineral Concentrations Related to Foraging Preferences of Western Lowland Gorilla in Central African Forest Clearings. American Journal of Primatology 76, 1115–1126.

    Southern, L. M. et al. (2021) Lethal coalitionary attacks of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) on gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in the wild. Scientific Reports 11, 14673.

    Stanford, C. B. & Nkurunungi, J. B. (2003) Behavioral ecology of sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: diet. International Journal of Primatology 24, 901-918.

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2013) Variability in the Developmental Life History of the Genus Gorilla. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152, 165–172.

    Tédonzong, L. R. D. et al. (2019) The distribution of plant consumption traits across habitat types and the patterns of fruit availability suggest a mechanism of coexistence of two sympatric frugivorous mammals. Ecology and Evolution 9, 4473-4494.

    Tédonzong, R. D. et al. (2020) Variation in behavioral traits of two frugivorous mammals may lead to differential responses to human disturbance. Ecology and Evolution 10 (8), 3798-3813.

    Tudge, S. J. et al. (2022) The impacts of human activity on mammals in a community forest near the Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon. Oryx, published online, 1-9.

    Tutin, C. E. G. (1996) Ranging and social structure of lowland gorillas in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Pp. 58-70 in: McGrew, W. et al. (eds.) Great ape societies. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1983) Gorillas feeding on termites in Gabon, West Africa. Journal of Mammalogy 64, 530-531.

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1985) Foods consumed by sympatric populations of Gorilla gorilla gorilla and Pan troglodytes troglodytes in Gabon: Some preliminary data. International Journal of Primatology 6, 27-44.

    Tutin, C. & Fernandez, M. (1987) Sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Gabon. Anthroquest 37, 3-6.

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1993) Composition of the diet of chimpanzees and comparisons with that of sympatric lowland gorillas in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. American Journal of Primatology 30, 195-211.

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1994) Comparison of food processing by sympatric apes in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Pp. 29-36 in: Current Primatology Vol. 1. Strasbourg.

    Tutin C. E. G. et al. (1997) The primate community of the Lope Reserve, Gabon: Diets, responses to fruit scarcity, and effects on biomass. American Journal of Primatology 42, 1-24.

    Tutin, C. E. G. et al. (1995) Nest building by lowland gorillas in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. International Journal of Primatology 16, 53-76.

    Tutin C. E. G. et al. (1991) A case study of a plant-animal interaction: Cola lizae and lowland gorillas in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. Journal tropical Ecology 7, 181-199.

    van Casteren, A. et al. (2019) Unexpected hard-object feeding in Western lowland gorillas. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 170 (3), 433-438.

    van der Hoek, Y. et al. (2019) Recent decline in vegetative regeneration of bamboo (Yushania alpina), a key food plant for primates in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Scientific Reports 9, 13041.

    van der Hoek, Y. et al. (2021) Diet of Grauer’s Gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri) in a Low-Elevation Forest. Folia Primatologica 92, 126-137.

    Van der Hoek, Y. et al. (2022) Diversity and diel activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in the Nkuba Conservation Area, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Oryx.

    Vedder, A. L. (1984) Movement patterns of a group of free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) and their relation to food availability. American Journal of Primatology 7, 73-88.

    Voysey, B. C. et al. (1999) Gorillas and seed dispersal in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. Journal tropical Ecology 15, 23-60.

    Watts, D. P. (1984) Composition and variability of mountain gorilla diets in the central Virungas. American Journal of Primatology 7, 323-356.

    Watts, D. P. (1985) Observations on the ontogeny of feeding behavior in mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 8, 1-10.

    Watts, D. P. (1985) Relations between group size and composition and feeding competition in mountain gorilla groups. Animal Behaviour 33, 72-85.

    Watts, D. P (1987) Effects of mountain gorilla foraging activities on the productivity of their food plant species. African Journal of Ecology 25, 155-163.

    Watts, D. P. (1988) Environmental influences on mountain gorilla time budgets. American Journal of Primatology 15, 195-211.

    Watts, D. P. (1989) Infanticide in mountain gorillas: New cases and a reconsideration of the evidence. Ethology 81, 1-18.

    Watts, D. P. (1989) Ant eating behavior of mountain gorillas. Primates 30, 121-125.

    Watts, D. P. (1990) Mountain gorilla life histories, reproductive competition, and sociosexual behavior and some implications for captive husbandry. Zoo Biology 9, 185-200.

    Watts, D. P. (1990) Ecology of gorillas and its relation to female transfer in mountain gorillas. International Journal of Primatology 11, 21-45.

    Watts, D. P. (1991) Strategies of habitat use by mountain gorillas. Folia Primatologica 56, 1-16.

    Watts, D. P. (1996) Comparative socio-ecology of gorillas. Pp. 16-28 in: McGrew, W. et al. (eds.) Great ape societies. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Watts, D. P. (1998) Long-term habitat use by mountain gorillas. 1. consistency, variation and home range size and stability. International Journal of Primatology 19, 651-680.

    Watts, D. P. (1998) Long-term habitat use by mountain gorillas. 2. reuse of foraging areas in relation to resource abundance, quality, and depletion. International Journal of Primatology 19, 681-702.

    Watts, D. P. (2000) Causes and consequences of variation in male mountain gorilla life histories and group membership. Pp. 169-179 in: Kappeler, P. M. (ed.) Primate males. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Watts, D. P. (2000) Mountain gorilla habitat use strategies and group movements. Pp. 351-374 in: Boinski, S. & Garber, P. A. (eds.) On the move. Chicago (University of Chicago Press).

    Weber A. W. & Vedder A (1983) Population dynamics of the Virunga gorillas: 1959-1978. Biological Conservation 26, 341-366.

    Williamson, E. A. et al. (1988) Western lowland gorillas feeding in streams and on savannas. Primate Report 19, 29-34.

    Williamson, E. A. et al. (1990) Composition of the diet of lowland gorillas at Lopé in Gabon. American Journal of Primatology 21, 265-277.

    Willie, J. et al. (2014) Plant selection for nest building by western lowland gorillas in Cameroon. Primates 55, 41-49.

    Wina, E. (1989) Observations on the nesting of eastern lowland gorillas Gorilla gorilla graueri at the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 97-101.

    Wright, E. & Robbins, M. M. (2014) Proximate mechanisms of contest competition among female Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 68 (11), 1785-1797.

    Wright, E. et al. (2014) Dominance rank differences in the energy intake and expenditure of female Bwindi mountain gorillas. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 68 (6), 957-970.

    Wright, E. et al. (2019) Male body size, dominance rank and strategic use of aggression in a group-living mammal. Animal Behaviour 151, 87-102.

    Wright, E. et al. (2022) Higher Maximum Temperature Increases the Frequency of Water Drinking in Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Frontiers Conservation Science 3, 738820.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1986) Activity rhythm and the ranging of a solitary male mountain gorilla. Primates 27, 273-282.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1987) Intra- and inter-group interactions of an all-male group of mountain gorillas. Primates 28, 1-30.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1987) Male life histories and the social structure of wild mountain gorillas. Pp. 31-51 in: Kawano, S. et al. (eds.) Evolution and coadaptation in biotic communities. Tokyo (University of Tokyo Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. (1999) Socioecological factors influencing population structure of gorillas and chimpanzees. Primates 40, 87-104.

    Yamagiwa, J. (2001) Factors influencing the formation of ground nests by eastern lowland gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park: some evolutionary implications of nesting behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 40, 99-109.

    Yamagiwa, J. (2004) Diet and foraging of the great apes: ecological constraints on their social organizations and implications for their divergence. Pp. 210-233 in: Russon, A. E. & Begun, D. R. (eds.) The evolution of thought: evolutionary origins of great ape intelligence. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. (2006) Diet and seasonal changes in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees at Kahuzi-Biega National Park. Primates 47, 74-90.

    Yamagiwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. (2006) Effects of fruit scarcity on foraging strategies of sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees. Pp. 73-96 in: Hohmann, G. et al. (eds.) Feeding ecology in apes and other primates. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. (2014) Socioecological Flexibility of Gorillas and Chimpanzees. Pp. 43-74 in: Yamagiwa, J. & Karczmarski, L. (eds.) (2014) Primates and Cetaceans: Field Research and Conservation of Complex Mammalian Societies (Primatology Monographs). Springer.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1989) A preliminary study on sympatric populations of Gorilla g. graueri and Pan t. schweinfurthii in eastern Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 23-40.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1996) Dietary and ranging overlap in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire. Pp. 82-98 in: McGrew, W. et al. (eds.) Great ape societies. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2005) Diet of Grauer's gorillas in the Montane Forest of Kahuzi, Democratic Republic of Congo. International Journal of Primatology 26, 1345-1373.

    Yamagiwa, J. & Kahekwa, J. (2001) Dispersal patterns, group structure, and reproductive parameters of eastern lowland gorillas at Kahuzi in the absence of infanticide. Pp. 89-122 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press)

    Yamagiwa, J. & Mwanza, N. (1994) Day-journey length and daily diet of solitary male gorillas in lowland and highland habitats. International Journal of Primatology 15, 207-224.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1991) Ant eating by eastern lowland gorillas. Primates 32, 247-253.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1992) Travel distances and food habits of eastern lowland gorillas: A comparative analysis. Pp. 267-281 in: Itoigawa, M. et al. (eds.) Topics in Primatology Vol. 2: Behavior, ecology and conservation. Univ. of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1994) Seasonal change in the composition of the diet of eastern lowland gorillas. Primates 35, 1-14.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2003) Within-group feeding competition and socioecological factors influencing social organization of gorillas in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Pp. 328-357 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2003) Intra-specific variation in social organization of gorillas: implications for their social evolution. Primates 44, 359-369.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2009) Infanticide and social flexibility in the genus Gorilla. Primates 50, 293-303.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2012) Long-term research on Grauer’s gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, DRC: life history, foraging strategies, and ecological differentiation from sympatric chimpanzees. Pp. 385-412 in: Kappeler, P. M. & Watts, D. P. (eds.) Long-term field studies of primates. Berlin, Heidelberg (Springer).

    Yuh, Y. G. et al. (2019) Effects of Land cover change on Great Apes distribution at the Lobéké National Park and its surrounding Forest Management Units, South-East Cameroon. A 13 year time series analysis. Scientific Reports 9 (1), 1445.

    Yumoto, T. et al. (1989) Feeding habit of primates in the tropical forests of eastern Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 41-51.

  • Physiology

    Clark, F. E. et al. (2012) Relationship Between Behavior, Adrenal Activity, and Environment in Zoo-Housed Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Zoo Biology 31, 306–321.

    Czekala, N. M. et al. (1987) Direct measurements of urinary estrone conjugates during the normal menstrual cycle of the gorilla. American Journal of Primatology 12, 223-229.

    Czekala, N. & Robbins, M. M. (2001) Assessment of reproduction and stress through hormone analysis in gorillas. Pp. 317-339 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Czekala, N. & Sicotte, P. (2000) Reproductive monitoring of free-ranging female mountain gorillas by urinary hormone analysis. American Journal of Primatology 51, 209-215.

    Dunn, R. R. et al. (2020) The Internal, External and Extended Microbiomes of Hominins. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 8, article 25.

    Edes, A. N. et al. (2016) Assessing Stress in Zoo-Housed Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Using Allostatic Load. Int. J. Primatol. 37, 241-259.

    Edes, A. N. et al. (2016) Rearing History and Allostatic Load in Adult Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Human Care. Zoo Biology 35, 167-173.

    Gamble, K. C. et al. (2011) Blood groups in the Species Survival Plan, European Endangered Species Program, and managed in situ populations of bonobo (Pan paniscus), common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), gorilla (Gorilla ssp.) and orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus ssp.). Zoo Biology 30, 427-444.

    Gould, K. G. & Kling, O. R. (1982) Fertility in the male gorilla: relationships to semen parameters and serum hormones. American Journal of Primatology 2, 311-316.

    Habumuremyi, S. et al. (2016) Endocrine assessment of ovarian cycle activity in wild female mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Physiology & Behavior 157, 185–195.

    Jänig, S. et al. (2019) Comparative chemical analysis of body odor in great apes. American Journal of Primatology 81 (6), e22976.

    Magliocca, F. E. & Gautier-Hion, A. (2002) Mineral content as a basis for food selection by western lowland gorillas in a forest clearing. American Journal of Primatology 57, 67-77.

    McClure, H. M. et al. (1972) Hematologic and blood chemistry data for the gorilla. Folia Primatologica 18, 300-316.

    Mitchell, W. R. et al. (1982) Urinary immuno-reactive estrogen and pregnanediol-3 glucuronide during the normal menstrual cycle of the female lowland gorilla. American Journal of Primatology 2, 167-175.

    Morrison, R. et al. (2023) Cumulative early-life adversity does not predict reduced adult longevity in wild gorillas. Current Biology 33 (11), P2307-2314.E4.

    Nadler, R. D. & Collins, D. C. (1991) Copulatory frequency, urinary pregnanediol, and fertility in great apes. American Journal of Primatology 24, 167-179.

    Nadler, R. D. et al. (1979) Plasma gonadotropins, prolactin, gonadal steroids, and genital swelling during the menstrual cycle of lowland gorillas. Endocrinology 105, 290-296.

    Patterson, F. G. P. et al. (1991) Cyclic changes in hormonal, physical, behavioral, and linguistic measures in a female lowland gorilla. American Journal of Primatology 24, 181-194.

    Peel, A. J. et al. (2005) Non-invasive fecal hormone analysis and behavioral observations for monitoring stress responses in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Zoo Biology 24, 431-445.

    Platz, C. C. (1987) Evaluating the fertility of the male lowland gorilla. International Zoo News 34(6), No. 205, 13-17.

    Remis, M. J. et al. (2001) Nutritional aspects of western lowland gorilla diet during seasons of fruit scarcity at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. International Journal of Primatology 22, 807-836.

    Robbins, M. M. & Czekala, N. M. (1997) A preliminary investigation of urinary testosterone and cortisol levels in wild male mountain gorillas. American Journal pf Primatology 43, 51-64.

    Shutt, K. et al. (2014) Effects of habituation, research and ecotourism on faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in wild western lowland gorillas: implications for conservation management. Biological Conservation 172, 72-79.

    Socha, W. W. & Moor-Jankowski, J. (1979) Blood groups of anthropoid apes and their relationship to human blood groups. Journal of Human Evolution 8, 453-465.

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2002) Urinary androgen and corticoid levels in captive male western lowland gorillas: age- and social group-related differences. American Journal of Primatology 56, 73-87.

    Whittier, C. A. et al. (2011) Proximate composition of milk from free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Zoo Biology 30, 308-317.

  • Rain forests in Africa; politics, economy

    Abernethy, K. A. et al. (2013) Extent and ecological consequences of hunting in Central African rainforests in the twenty-first century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 368, 20120303.

    Aveling, R. J. (1987) Environmental education in developing countries. Pp. 231-262 in: Marsh, C. W. & Mittermeier, R. A. (eds.) Primate conservation in the tropical rain forest. New York (Alan R. Liss).

    Barbier, E. B. et al. (1994) The economics of the tropical timber trade. London (Earthscan).

    Biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa and its islands (1990). Gland (IUCN).

    Blockhus, J. M. et al. (1992) Conserving biological diversity in managed tropical forests. Gland (IUCN).

    Bowles, I. A. et al (1998) Logging and tropical forest conservation. Science 280, 1899-1900.

    Brown, K. & Pearce, D. W. (1994) The causes of tropical deforestation. London (UCL Press).

    Buřivalová, Z. et al. (2023) Broadening the focus of forest conservation beyond carbon. Current Biology 33 (11), PR621-R635.

    Christensen, M. & Arsanjani, J. J. (2020) Stimulating Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals and Conservation Action: Predicting Future Land Use/Cover Change in Virunga National Park, Congo. Sustainability 12, 1570.

    Cazzolla Gatti, R. et al. (2015) The impact of selective logging and clearcutting on forest structure, tree diversity and above-ground biomass of African tropical forests. Ecol. Res. 30, 119–132.

    Deforestation and the forest peoples of Central Africa. infoe-Studie 6. Mönchengladbach 1990.

    Duncanson, L. et al. (2023) The effectiveness of global protected areas for climate change mitigation. Nature Communications 14, 2908.

    Eckardt, W. et al. (2019) Social and ecological factors alter stress physiology of Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Ecology and Evolution 9 (9), 5248-5259.

    Effiom, E. O. et al. (2013) Bushmeat hunting changes regeneration of African rainforests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280, 20130246.

    Gartlan, J. S. (1974) The African forests and problems of conservation. Symposia of the 5th Congress of the International Primatological Society, 509-528.

    Guizar-Coutiño, A. et al. (2022) A global evaluation of the effectiveness of voluntary REDD+ projects at reducing deforestation and degradation in the moist tropics. Conservation Biology 36, e13970.

    Hamilton, A. C. (1984) Deforestation in Uganda. Nairobi (Oxford University Press).

    Harcourt, A. H & Pennington, H. (1986) Local attitudes to wildlife and conservation. Primate Eye 29 (Suppl.), 12-15.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1986) Public attitudes to wildlife and conservation in the Third World. Oryx 20, 152-154.

    Haurez, B. et al. (2018) Seed dispersal effectiveness of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Gabon. Afr. J. Ecol. 56 (2), 185-193.

    Hicks, A. L. et al. (2018) Gut microbiomes of wild great apes fluctuate seasonally in response to diet. Nature Communications 9, 1786.

    IUCN (1987) IUCN Directory of afrotropical protected areas. Gland (IUCN).

    IUCN (1992) Conservation atlas of tropical forests, Africa.

    Johns, A. D. & Skorupa, J. P. (1987) Responses of rain forest primates to habitat disturbance: a review. International Journal of Primatology 8, 157-191.

    Junker, J. et al. (2012) Recent decline in suitable environmental conditions for African great apes. Diversity and Distributions 18, 1077-1099.

    Karsenty, A. (2020) Géopolitique des forêts d’Afrique centrale. Hérodote 179 (4), 108-129.

    Kleinschroth, F. et al. (2019) Road expansion and persistence in forests of the Congo Basin. Nature Sustainability 628(2), 628-634.

    Masi, S. & Breuer, T. (2018) Dialium seed coprophagy in wild western gorillas: Multiple nutritional benefits and toxicity reduction hypotheses. Amer. J. Primatol. 80 (4), e22752.

    Mayaux, P. (2013) State and evolution of the African rainforests between 1990 and 2010. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 368, 20120300.

    Meggers, B. J. et al. (Hrsg.) (1973) Tropical forest ecosystems in Africa and South America: A comparative review. Washington (Smithsonian).

    Morgan, D. et al. (2018) African apes coexisting with logging: Comparing chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) and gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) resource needs and responses to forestry activities. Biological Conservation 218, 277-286.

    Morgan, D. et al. (2019) Impacts of Selective Logging and Associated Anthropogenic Disturbance on Intact Forest Landscapes and Apes of Northern Congo. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 2 (28).

    Myers, N. (1987) Trends in the destruction of rain forests. Pp. 3-22 in: Marsh, C. W. & Mittermeier, R. A. (eds.) Primate conservation in the tropical rain forest. New York (Alan R. Liss).

    Pendrill, T. A. et al. (2022) Disentangling the numbers behind agriculture-driven tropical deforestation. Science 377 (6611), eabm9267.

    Putz, F. E. et al. (2000) Why poor logging practices persist in the tropics. Conservation biology 14, 951-956.

    Rudel, T. K. (2013) The national determinants of deforestation in sub-Saharan Africa. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 368, 20120405.

    Seiler, N. et al. (2017) Space partitioning in wild, non-territorial mountain gorillas: The impact of food and neighbours. Royal Society Open Science 4 (11), 1-13.

    Seiler, N. et al. (2018) Social and ecological correlates of space use patterns in Bwindi mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 80 (4), e22754.

    Spinage, C. L. (1972) The ecology and problems of the Volcano National Park, Rwanda. Biological Conservation 4, 194-204.

    Sze, J. S. et al. (2022) Indigenous lands in protected areas have high forest integrity across the tropics. Current Biology 32, 4949-4956.

    Tabor, G. M. et al. (1990) Deciding the future of Uganda's tropical forests. Oryx 24 (4), 208-214.

    Tudge, S. J. et al. (2022) The impacts of human activity on mammals in a community forest near the Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon. Oryx, First View.

    Tyukavina, A. et al. (2018) Congo Basin forest loss dominated by increasing smallholder clearing. Science Advances 4(11), eaat2993.

    Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1987) Gabon: a fragile sanctuary. Primate Conservation 8, 160-161.

    van der Valk, T. et al. (2018) Significant loss of mitochondrial diversity within the last century due to extinction of peripheral populations in eastern gorillas. Scientific Reports 8, 6551.

    Weber, W. et al. (Hrsg.) (2001) African rain forest ecology and conservation. New Haven, London (Yale University Press).

    Wilkie, D. et al. (2000) Roads, development, and conservation in the Congo Basin. Conservation Biology 14, 1614-1622.

  • Tourism

    Ahebwa et al. (2012) Tourism revenue sharing policy at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: a policy arrangements approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 20 (3), 377-394.

    Boo, E. (1990) Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington D. C.

    Butler, R. W. (1991) Tourism, environment, and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18, 201-209.

    Butynski, T. M. & Kalina, J. (1998) Gorilla tourism: A critical look. In: Conservation of Biological Resources. E. J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace (eds.). Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, Pp. 280-300.

    Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

    Costa, R. F. P. et al. (2022) Mountain gorillas benefit from social distancing too: Close proximity from tourists affects gorillas' sociality. Conservation Science and Practice, e12859.

    Costa, R. et al. (2023) The impact of tourist visits on mountain gorilla behavior in Uganda. Journal of Ecotourism.

    Duffus, D. (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7, 440-442.

    Evans, S. (2000) Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option for threatened resources? In: X. Font & J. Tribe (eds.) Forest tourism and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB International.

    Goldsmith, M. L. (2014): Mountain gorilla tourism as a conservation tool: have we tipped the balance? Pp. 177–198 in: Russon, A. E. & Wallis, J.: Primate Tourism: A Tool for Conservation? Cambridge ( Cambridge University Press)

    Hanes, A. C. et al. (2018) Assessment of Health Risks Posed by Tourists Visiting Mountain Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Primate Conservation 32, 123-132.

    Klailova, M. et al. (2010) Behavioral responses of one western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) group at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic, to tourists, researchers and trackers. American Journal of Primatology 71, 1-10.

    Köndgen, S. et al. (2008) Pandemic human viruses cause decline of endangered great apes. Current Biology 18, 1-5.

    Laudati, A. (2010) Ecotourism: the modern predator? Implications of gorilla tourism on local livelihoods in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Environment and Planning D: Society & Space 28 (4), 726-743.

    Laudati, A. (2010): The encroaching forest: struggles overland and resources on the boundary of Bwindi Impentrable National Park, Uganda. Society and Natural Resources 23, 776-789. 

    Litchfield, C. (2001) Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool & R. N. Moisey (Hrsg.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB International.

    McNeilage A. (1996) Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. & Dunstone, N. (eds.) The Exploitation of Mammal Populations, pp. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall.

    Moorhouse, T. P. (2015) The Customer Isn't Always Right — Conservation and Animal Welfare Implications of the Increasing Demand for Wildlife Tourism. PLoS ONE 10 (10), e0138939.

    Moulton, M. P. & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife issues in a changing world. St Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

    Muresherwa, G. et al. (2022) The management of mountain gorilla tourism in Uganda: Are the socio-economic benefits realised? J. transdiscipl. res. S. Afr. 18 (1), a1136.

    Nuno, A. et al. (2022) Protecting great apes from disease: Compliance with measures to reduce anthroponotic disease transmission. People and Nature 4 (5), 1387-1400.

    Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the sustainability of uses of wild species: Case studies and initial procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2011) Extreme Conservation Leads to Recovery of the Virunga Mountain Gorillas. PLoS one 6 (6), e19788.

    Russon, A. & Wallis, J. (eds.; 2014) Primate Tourism: A Tool for Conservation? Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Rwego, I. B. et al. (2008) Gastrointestinal bacterial transmission among humans, mountain gorillas, and livestock in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Conservation Biology 22, 1600-1607.

    Sandbrook, C. (2010) Putting leaking in its place: the significance of retained tourism revenue in the local context in rural Uganda. Journal of International Development 22, 124-136.

    Sandbrook, C. & Semple, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringeitracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433.

    Shutt, K. et al. (2014) Effects of habituation, research and ecotourism on faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in wild western lowland gorillas: implications for conservation management. Biological Conservation 172, 72-79.

    Snyman, S. et al. (2023) Benefit-sharing from protected area tourism: A 15-year review of the Rwanda tourism revenue sharing programme. Frontiers in Sustainable Tourism1, 1052052.

    Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News 6, 15-16.

    Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorilla tourism: A reply to Zaire. Gorilla Conservation News 7, 12-13.

    Van Hamme, G. et al. (2021) Keep your distance: Using Instagram posts to evaluate the risk of anthroponotic disease transmission in gorilla ecotourism. People and Nature 3 (2) 325-334.

    Wall, G. (1997) Is ecotourism sustainable? Environmental Management 21, 483-491.

    Wallis, J. & Lee, D. R. (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease transmission. International Journal of Primatology 20, 803-826.

    Walpole, M. J. & Thouless, C. R. (2005) Increasing the value of wildlife through non-consumptive use? Deconstructing the myths of ecotourism and community-based tourism in the tropics. Pp. 122-139 in: Woodroffe, R. et al. (eds.) Prople and wildlife - conflict of coexistence? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Weber, A. et al. (2020) Lack of Rule-Adherence During Mountain Gorilla Tourism Encounters in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, Places Gorillas at Risk From Human Disease. Frontiers of Public Health 8, 1.

    Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (eds. C. S. Potter et al.), pp. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington D. C.

    Wilkie D. S. & Carpenter J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas in the Congo Basin? Oryx 33 (4), 332-338.

    Wilkie D. S. & Carpenter J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source of revenue for protected areas in the Congo Basin. Oryx 33 (4), 339-345.

    Woodford, M. H. et al. (2002) Habituating the great apes: the disease risk. Oryx 38, 153-160.

  • Behaviour

    Anderson, J. R. et al. (2019) Nesting, sleeping, and nighttime behaviors in wild and captive great apes. Primates 60 (4), 321–332.

    Bernstein, I. S. (1969) A comparison of the nesting patterns among the three great apes. Pp. 393-402 in: Bourne, G. H. (ed.) The chimpanzee Vol. 1. Basel (Karger).

    Blom, A. et al. (2004) Behavioral responses of gorillas to habituation in the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic. International Journal of Primatology 25, 179-196.

    Boekhorst, I. J. A. te et al. (1990) Social structure of a group of captive lowland gorillas. Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 81, 17-30.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2004) Dispersed male networks in western gorillas. Current Biology 14, 510-513.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2005) Mountain gorilla tug-of-war: silverbacks have limited control over reproduction in multimale groups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 102, 9418-9423.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2007) Potential for female kin associations in wild western gorillas despite female dispersal. Proceedings of the Royal Society London Series B 274, 2179-2185.

    Breuer, T. et al. (2005) First observation of tool use in wild gorillas. PLoS Biology 3, 2041-2043 (online e380).

    Breuer, T. et al. (2016) Sexual coercion and courtship by male western gorillas. Primates 57, 29–38.

    Brown, S. G. (1988) Play behaviour in lowland gorillas: age differences, sex differences, and possible functions. Primates 29, 219-228.

    Brown, S. G. et al. (1982) Notes on water-contact by a captive male lowland gorilla. Zoo Biology 1, 243-249.

    Brown, S. G. & Wagster, M. V. (1986) Socialization processes in a female lowland gorilla. Zoo Biology 5, 269-279.

    Byrne, R. W. (1995) Primate cognition: comparing problems and skills. American Journal of Primatology 37, 127-141.

    Byrne, R. W. (1994) Complex skills in wild mountain gorillas: techniques for gathering plant food. Pp. 51-59 in: Current Primatology Vol. 3. Strasbourg.

    Byrne, R. W. & Byrne, J. M. E. (1993) Complex leaf-gathering skills of mountain gorillas: variability and standardization. American Journal of Primatology 31, 241-261.

    Byrne, R. W. et al. (2001) Estimating the complexity of animal behaviour: how mountain gorillas eat thistles. Behaviour 138, 525-557.

    Byrne, R. W. (2001) Clever hands: the food-processing skills of mountain gorillas. Pp. 293-313 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Caillaud, D. et al. (2008) Influence of male morphology on male mating status and behavior during interunit encounters in western lowland gorillas. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 135, 379–388.

    Caillaud, D. et al. (2020) Violent encounters between social units hinder the growth of a high-density mountain gorilla population. Science Advances 6 (45), eaba0724.

    Carpenter, C. R. (1964) An observational study of two captive mountain gorillas. In: Carpenter, C. R. (eds.) Naturalistic behaviour of nonhuman primates. University Park (Pennsylvania University Press).

    Doran, D. M. & McNeilage, A. (1998) Gorilla ecology and behavior. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 120-131.

    Doran, D. M. & McNeilage, A. (2001) Subspecific variation in gorilla behavior: the influence of ecological and social factors. Pp. 123-149 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Doran-Sheehy, D. M. et al. (2009) The strategic use of sex in wild female western gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 71, 1011-1020.

    Fagot, J. & Vauclair, J. (1988) Handedness and bimanual coordination in the lowland gorilla. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 32, 89-95.

    Fay, M. (1989) Hand-clapping in western lowland gorillas. Mammalia 53, 457-458.

    Fay, J. M. et al. (1995) Leopard attack on and consumption of gorillas in the Central African Republic. Journal of human Evolution 29, 93-99.

    Fischer, R. B. (1983) Maternal subgrouping in lowland gorillas. Behavioural Processes 8, 301-306.

    Fischer, R. B. & Nadler, R. D. (1977) Status interactions of captive lowland gorillas. Folia Primatologica 28, 122-133.

    Fischer, R. B. & Nadler, R. D. (1978) Affiliative, playful and homosexual interactions of adult female lowland gorillas. Primates 19, 657-664.

    Forcina, G. et al. (2019) From groups to communities in western lowland gorillas. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (1896).

    Fossey, D. (1972) Vocalisations of the mountain gorilla. Animal Behaviour 20, 36-53.

    Fossey, D. (1982) Reproduction among free-living mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, Suppl. 1, 97-104.

    Fossey, D. (1984) Infanticide in mountain gorillas with comparative notes on chimpanzees. Pp. 217-235 in: Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S. B. (eds.) Infanticide. New York (Aldine).

    Ganas, J. & Robbins, M. M. (2005) Ranging behavior of the mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: a test of the ecological constraints model. Behav. Ecology and Sociobiology 58, 277-288.

    Gomez, J. C. (1988) Social play interactions in a group of captive infant gorillas. Primate Report 19, 19-23.

    Gomez, J. C. (1988) Tool-use and communication as alternative strategies of problem-solving in the gorilla. Primate Report 19, 25-28.

    Gomez, J. C. (1990) The emergence of intentional communication as a problem-solving strategy in the gorilla. Pp. 333-355 in: Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. R. (eds.) "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes. New York (Cambridge University Press).

    Grebe, N. M. et al. (2022) Mountain gorillas maintain strong affiliative biases for maternal siblings despite high male reproductive skew and extensive exposure to paternal kin. eLife 11, e80820.

    Grueter, C. C. & Stoinski, T. S. (2016) Homosexual Behavior in Female Mountain Gorillas: Reflection of Dominance, Affiliation, Reconciliation or Arousal? PLoS ONE 11 (5), e0154185

    Grüter, C. C. et al. (2013) Possible tool use in a mountain gorilla. Behavioural Processes 100, 160-162.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2016) Causes, mechanisms, and consequences of contest competition among female mountain gorillas in Rwanda. Behavioral Ecology 27 (3), 766-776.

    Grueter, C. C. et al. (2016) Elevated activity in adult mountain gorillas is related to consumption of bamboo shoots. Journal of Mammalogy 97 (6), 1663-1670.

    Habumuremyi, S. et al. (2018) Male-female interactions in multimale groups of mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 80 (11), e22910.

    Hagemann, L. et al. (2018) Long‐term group membership and dynamics in a wild western lowland gorilla population (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) inferred using non‐invasive genetics (advance online). American Journal of Primatology, e22898.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1978) Activity periods and patterns of social interaction: a neglected problem. Behaviour 66, 121-135.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1978) Strategies of emigration and transfer by primates, with particular reference to gorillas. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 48, 401-420.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1979) Contrasts between male relationships in wild gorilla groups. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 5, 39-49.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1979) Social relationships among female mountain gorillas. Animal Behaviour 27, 251-264.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1979) Social relationships between adult male and female mountain gorillas. Animal Behaviour 27, 325-342.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1979) The social relations and group structure of wild mountain gorillas. Pp. 187-192 in: Hamburg, D. A. & McCown, E. (eds.) The great apes. Menlo Park (Benjamin/Cummings).

    Harcourt, A. H. (1981) Intermale competition and the reproductive behavior of the great apes. Pp. 301-318 in: Graham, C. E. (eds.) Reproductive biology of the great apes. New York (Academic Press).

    Harcourt, A. H. (1989) Social influences on competitive ability: alliances and their consequences. Pp. 223-242 in: Standen, V. & Foley, R. A. (eds.) Comparative socio-ecology. Oxford (Blackwell).

    Harcourt, A. H. & Greenberg, J. (2001) Do gorilla females join males to avoid infanticide? A quantitative model. Animal Behaviour 62, 905-915.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1980) Reproduction in wild gorillas and some comparisons with chimpanzees. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, Suppl. 28, 59-70.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1978) Sexual behaviour of wild mountain gorillas. Pp. 611-612 in: Chivers, D. J. & Herberts, J. (eds.) Recent advances in primatology Vol. 1. London (Academic Press).

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1981) Gorilla male relationships: can differences during immaturity lead to contrasting reproductive tactics in adulthood? Anim. Behav. 29, 206-210.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1985) Competition and cooperation in a gorilla population. National Geographic Society Research Reports 20, 321-329.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1987) The influence of help in contests of dominance rank in primates, hints from gorillas. Animal Behaviour 35, 182-190.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1989) Functions of alliances in contests within wild gorilla groups. Behaviour 109, 176-190.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1996) Function and meaning of wild gorilla 'close' calls. 2. Correlations with rank and relatedness. Behaviour 133, 827-845.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (2001) Vocal relationships of wild mountain gorillas. Pp. 241-262 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (2007) Gorilla society: what we know and don't know. Evolutionary Anthropology 16, 147-158.

    Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (2007) Gorilla society: conflict, compromise, and cooperation between the sexes. Chicago, London (University of Chicago Press).

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1976) Male emigration and female transfer in wild mountain gorillas. Nature 263, No. 5574, 226-227.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1981) Gorilla reproduction in the wild. Pp. 265-279 in: Graham, C. E. (ed.) Reproductive biology of the great apes. New York (Academic Press).

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1986) Vocalizations and social relationships of wild gorillas. Pp. 346-356 in: Taub, D. M. & King, F. A. (eds.) Current perspectives in primate social dynamics. New York (Van Nostrand Reinhold).

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1993) Function of wild gorilla 'close' calls: I. repertoire, context and interspecific comparison. Behaviour 124, 89-122.

    Hedwig, D. et al. (2014) Acoustic structure and variation in mountain and western gorilla close calls: a syntactic approach. Behaviour 151 (8), 1091-1120.

    Hedwig, D. et al. (2015) Audience Effects, but not Environmental Influences, Explain Variation in Gorilla Close Distance Vocalizations - A Test of the Acoustic Adaptation Hypothesis. American Journal of Primatology 77, 1239-1252.

    Hess, J. P. (1973) Some observations on the sexual behaviour of captive lowland gorillas, Gorilla gorilla gorilla. Pp. 507-581 in: Michael, R. P. & Crook, J. H. (eds.) Comparative ecology and behaviour of primates. London (Academic Press).

    Hoff, M. P. et al. (1982) Control role of an adult male in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Folia Primatologica 38, 72-85.

    Kalan, A. K. et al. (2019) Novelty response of wild African apes to camera traps. Current Biology 29 (7), 1211-1217.

    Kinani, J.-F. & Zimmerman, D. (2015) Tool Use for Food Acquisition in a Wild Mountain Gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei). American Journal of Primatology 77 (3), 353-357.

    Klailova, M. & Lee, P. C. (2014) Wild Western Lowland Gorillas Signal Selectively Using Odor. PLoS ONE 9 (7): e99554.

    Klailova, M. et al. (2010) Behavioral responses of one western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) group at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic, to tourists, researchers and trackers. American Journal of Primatology 71, 1-10.

    Levrero, F. et al. (2006) Living in nonbreeding groups: an alternative strategy for maturing gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 68, 275-291.

    Luef, E. M. et al. (2016) Food-Associated Calling in Gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) in the Wild. PLoS ONE 11(2): e0144197.

    Mallavarapu, S. et al. (2006) Postconflict behavior in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Primatology 68, 789-801.

    Manguette, M. et al. (2019) Intersexual conflict influences female reproductive success in a female-dispersing primate. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 73, 118.

    Manguette, M. L. et al. (2020) Female dispersal patterns influenced by male tenure duration and group size in western lowland gorillas. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 74, article 81.

    Manguette, M. L. et al. (2020) Infant survival in western lowland gorillas after voluntary dispersal by pregnant females. Primates, published online.

    Marler, P. (1976) Social organization, communication and graded signals: the chimpanzee and the gorilla. Pp. 239-280 in: Bateson, P. P. G. & Hinde, R. A. (eds.) Growing points in ethology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Meder, A. (1986) Physical and activity changes associated with pregnancy in captive lowland gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 11, 111-116.

    Meder, A. (1990) Sex differences in the behaviour of immature captive lowland gorillas. Primates 31, 51-63.

    Meder, A. (1994) The effects of familiarity, age, dominance and rearing on the reproductive success of captive gorillas. In: Kirchshofer, R.International Studbook of the Gorilla, 1993. Frankfurt.

    Mirville, M. O. et al. (2018) Factors influencing individual participation during intergroup interactions in mountain gorillas. Animal Behaviour 144, 75-86.

    Mirville, M. O. et al. (2018) Low familiarity and similar 'group strength' between opponents increase the intensity of intergroup interactions in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 72, 178.

    Mirville, M. O. et al. (2020) Intragroup Behavioral Changes Following Intergroup Conflict in Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). International Journal of Primatology41, 382-400.

    Mitani, J. C. (1996) Comparative studies of African apes vocal behavior. Pp. 241-254 in: McGrew, W. et al. (eds.) Great ape societies. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Mitchell, R. W. (1989) Functions and social consequences of infant-adult male interaction in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Zoo Biology 8, 125-137.

    Mitchell, W. R. et al. (1985) Sexual behavior and urinary ovarian hormone concentrations during the lowland gorilla menstrual cycle. International Journal of Primatology 6, 161-172.

    Mori, A. (1983) Comparison of the communicative vocalizations and behaviors of group ranging in eastern gorillas, chimpanzees and pygmy chimpanzees. Primates 24, 486-500.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2019) Hierarchical social modularity in gorillas. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (1906), 20190681.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2020) Comparing measures of social complexity: larger mountain gorilla groups do not have a greater diversity of relationships. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 287 (1931).

    Morrison, R. E. (2020) Western gorilla space use suggests territoriality. Scientific Reports 10, 3692.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2021) Social groups buffer maternal loss in mountain gorillas. eLife 10, e62939.

    Morrison, R. E. et al. (2022) Cascading effects of social dynamics on the reproduction, survival, and population growth of mountain gorillas. Animal Conservation.

    Mouele, A. M. et al. (2022). Allo-and autocoprophagy events in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). African Journal of Ecology 00, 1-5.

    Nadler, R. D. (1976) Sexual behavior of captive lowland gorillas. Archives of sexual behavior 5, 487-502.

    Nadler, R. D. (1986) Sex-related behavior of immature wild mountain gorillas. Developmental Psychobiology 19, 125-137.

    Nadler, R. D. (1989) Sexual aggression in common chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan. Primate Report 23, 5-11.

    Nadler, R. D. (1989) Sexual initiation in wild mountain gorillas. International Journal of Primatology 10, 81-92.

    Nadler, R. D. & Phoenix, C. H. (1991) Male sexual behavior: Monkeys, men, and apes. Pp. 152-189 in: Loy, J. D. & Peters, C. B. (eds.) Understanding behavior. New York (Oxford University Press).

    Nishihara, T. & Kuroda, S. (1991) Soil scratching behaviour by western lowland gorillas. Folia primatologica 577, 48-51.

    Ogden, J. & Schildkraut, D. (1991) Compilation of gorilla ethograms. Atlanta (Zoo Atlanta).

    Parnell, R. (1999) The Mbeli Bai gorillas - social structure and behaviour. Gorilla Journal 19, 22-23.

    Pisor, A. C. & Surbeck, M. (2019) The evolution of intergroup tolerance in nonhuman primates and humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 28, 210-223.

    Porter, A. et al. (2019) Behavioral responses around conspecific corpses in adult eastern gorillas (Gorilla beringei spp.). PeerJ 7, e6655.

    Quiatt, D. et al. (1986) Overt behavior correlates of menstruation and ovulation in a lowland gorilla. Pp. 3241 in: Taub, D. M. & King, F. A. (eds.) Current perspectives in primate biology. New York (Van Nostrand Reinhold).

    Robbins, A. M. & Robbins, M. M. (2005) Fitness consequences of dispersal decisions for male mountain gorillas. Behav. Ecology and Sociobiology 58, 295-309.

    Robbins,  A. M. et al. (2013) Impact of Male Infanticide on the Social Structure of Mountain Gorillas. PLoS ONE 8 (11), e78256.

    Robbins, A. M. et al. (2016) Mothers may shape the variations in social organization among gorillas. Royal Society open science 3, 160533.

    Robbins, M. (1996) Male-male interactions in heterosexual and all-male wild mountain gorilla groups. Ethology 102, 942-965.

    Robbins, M. M. (1999) Male mating patterns in wild multimale mountain gorilla groups. Animal Behaviour 57:1013-1020.

    Robbins, M. M. (2001) Variation in the social system of mountain gorillas: the male perspective. Pp. 29-58 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Robbins, M. M. (2003) Behavioral aspects of sexual selection in mountain gorillas. Pp. 477-501 in: Jones, C. B. (ed.) Sexual selection and reproductive competition in primates. Norman, OK (American Society of Primatologists).

    Robbins, M. M. & Sawyer, S. C. (2007) Intergroup encounters in mountain gorillas of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Behaviour 144, 1497-1519.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2004) Social structure and life-history patterns in western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Primatology 64, 145-159.Robbins, M. M. et al. (2016) Behavioral Variation in Gorillas: Evidence of Potential Cultural Traits. PLoS ONE 11 (9), e0160483.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2019) Dispersal and reproductive careers of male mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Primates 60 (2), 133-142.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2015) Male rank, not paternity, predicts male–immature relationships in mountain gorillas, Gorilla beringei beringei. Animal Behaviour 104, 13-24.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2016) Relationships Between Adult Male and Maturing Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) Persist Across Developmental Stages and Social Upheaval. Ethology 122, 134-150.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2016) Group structure predicts variation in proximity relationships between male-female and male-infant pairs of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Primates 57, 17-28.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2016) Infant Mortality Risk and Paternity Certainty Are Associated with Postnatal Maternal Behavior toward Adult Male Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). PLoS ONE 11 (2), e0147441.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2016) Observations of severe and lethal coalitionary attacks in wild mountain gorillas. Scientific Reports 6, 37018.

    Rosenbaum, S. et al. (2018) Caring for infants is associated with increased reproductive success for male mountain gorillas. Scientific Reports 8, 15223.

    Salmi, R. (2014) Individual Distinctiveness in Call Types of Wild Western Female Gorillas. PLoS ONE 9 (7), e101940.

    Salmi, R. & Doran-Sheehy, D. M. (2014) The Function of Loud Calls (Hoot Series) in Wild Western Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 155, 379-391.

    Salmi, R. & Muñoz, M. (2020) The context of chest beating and hand clapping in wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Primates 61, 225-235.

    Salmi, R. et al. (2013) Western gorilla vocal repertoire and contextual use of vocalizations. Ethology 119, 831-847.

    Sanz, C. et al. (2022) Interspecific interactions between sympatric apes. iScience 25, 105059.

    Schaller, G. B. (1965) The behaviour of the mountain gorilla. Pp. 324-367 in: DeVore, I. (ed.) Primate behavior. New York (Holt, Rinehart & Winston).

    Seiler, N. & Robbins, M. M. (2020) Using long‑term ranging patterns to assess within‑group and between‑group competition in wild mountain gorillas. BMC Ecology 20, 40.

    Seiler, N. et al. (2017) Space partitioning in wild, non-territorial mountain gorillas: The impact of food and neighbours. Royal Society Open Science 4 (11), 1-13.

    Seiler, N. et al. (2018) Social and ecological correlates of space use patterns in Bwindi mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 80 (4), e22754.

    Seyfarth, R. M. et al. (1994) The acoustic features of gorilla double grunts and their relation to behavior. American Journal of Primatology 33, 31-50.

    Sicotte, P. (1993) Inter-group encounters and female transfer in mountain gorillas on male behavior. American Journal of Primatology 30, 21-36.

    Sicotte, P. (1994) Effect of male competition on male-female relationships in bi-male groups of mountain gorillas. Ethology 97, 47-64.

    Sicotte, P. (1995) Interpositions in conflicts between males in bimale groups of mountain gorillas. Folia Primatologica 65, 14-24.

    Sicotte, P. (2000) A case study of mother-son transfer in mountain gorillas. Primates 41, 93-101.

    Sicotte, P. (2001) Female mate choice in mountain gorillas. Pp. 59-87 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Sicotte, P. (2002) The function of male aggressive displays towards females in mountain gorillas. Primates 43, 277-289.

    Southern, L. M. et al. (2021) Lethal coalitionary attacks of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) on gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in the wild. Scientific Reports 11, 14673.

    Stewart, K. J. (2001) Social relationships of immature gorillas and silverbacks. Pp. 183-213 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Stewart, K. J. & Harcourt, A. H. (1987) Gorillas: variation in female relationships. Pp. 155-165 in: Smuts, B. B. et al. (eds.) Primate societies. Chicago (University of Chicago Press).

    Stewart, K. J. & Harcourt, A. H. (1994) Gorillas' vocalizations during rest periods: signals of impending department? Behaviour 130, 29-40.

    Stewart, K. J. et al. (1988) Determinants of fertility in wild gorillas and other primates. Pp. 22-38 in: Diggory, P. et al. (eds.) Natural human fertility. London (Macmillan).

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2009) Proximate factors influencing dispersal decisions in male mountain gorillas, Gorilla beringei beringei. Animal Behaviour 77 (5), 1155-1164.

    Stokes, E. J. et al. (2003) Female dispersal and reproductive success in wild western lowland gorillas. Behav. Ecology and Sociobiology 54, 329-339.

    Stokes, E. J. (2004) Within-group social relationships among females and adult males in wild western lowland gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 64, 233-246.

    Tédonzong, R. D. et al. (2020) Variation in behavioral traits of two frugivorous mammals may lead to differential responses to human disturbance. Ecology and Evolution 10 (8), 3798-3813.

    Tilford, B. L. & Nadler, R. D. (1978) Male parental behavior in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Folia primatologica 29, 218-228.

    Vigilant, L. et al. (2015) Reproductive competition and inbreeding avoidance in a primate species with habitual female dispersal. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 69, 1163-1172.

    Visalberghi, E. (1986) Aspects of space representation in an infant gorilla. Pp. 445-452 in: Taub, D. M. & King, F. A. (eds.) Current perspectives in primate social dynamics. New York (Van Nostrand Reinhold).

    Watson, L. M. (1984) Hormone levels and overt social behaviors, including signed output, in a captive lowland gorilla. Zoo Biology 3, 285-306.

    Watts, D. P. (1988) Environmental influences on mountain gorilla time budgets. American Journal Primatology 15, 195-211.

    Watts, D. P. (1989) Infanticide in mountain gorillas: New cases and a reconsideration of the evidence. Ethology 81, 1-18.

    Watts, D. P. (1990) Social relationships of immigrate female mountain gorillas. American Journal physical Anthropology 81, 314-315.

    Watts, D. P. (1990) Mountain gorilla life histories, reproductive competition, and sociosexual behavior and some implications for captive husbandry. Zoo Biology 9, 185-200.

    Watts, D. P. (1991) Mountain gorilla reproduction and sexual behavior. American Journal of Primatology 24, 211-225.

    Watts D. P. (1991) Harassment of immigrant female mountain gorillas by resident females. Ethology 89:135-153.

    Watts, D. P. (1992) Social relationships of immigrant and resident female mountain gorillas. I. male-female relationships. American Journal of Primatology 28, 159-181.

    Watts, D. P. (1994) Agonistic relationships between female mountain gorillas. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 334, 347-358.

    Watts, D. P. (1994) Social relationships of immigrant and resident female mountaing gorillas. II. relatedness, residence, and relationships between females. American Journal of Primatology 32, 13-30.

    Watts, D. P. (1994) The influence of male mating tactics on habitat use in mountain gorillas. Primates 35, 35-47.

    Watts, D. P. (1995) Post-conflict social events in wild mountain gorillas. I. social interactions between opponents. Ethology 100, 139-157.

    Watts, D. P. (1995) Post-conflict social events in wild mountain gorillas. II. redirection, side direction, and consolation. Ethology 100, 158-174.

    Watts, D. P. (1997) Agonistic interventions in wild mountain gorilla groups. Behaviour 134, 23-57.

    Watts, D. P. (1998) A preliminary study of selective visual attention in female mountain gorillas. Primates 39, 71-78.

    Watts, D. P. (2001) Social relationships of female mountain gorillas. Pp. 215-240 in: Robbins, M. M. et al. (eds.) Mountain Gorillas. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Watts, D. P. (2003) Gorilla social relationships: a comparative overview. Pp. 302-327 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Watts, D. P. (2020) Responses to dead and dying conspecifics and heterospecifics by wild mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Primates 61, 55-68.

    Weiche, I. (2006) Social relationships in captive gorilla females. Göttingen (Cuvillier Verlag).

    Wittiger, L. & Sunderland-Groves J. L. (2007) Tool use during display behavior in wild Cross River gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 69, 1307-1311.

    Wright, E. et al. (2019) Male body size, dominance rank and strategic use of aggression in a group-living mammal. Animal Behaviour 151, 87-102.

    Wright, E. et al. (2021) Chest beats as an honest signal of body size in male mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Scientific Reports 11, 6879.

    Wright, E. et al. (2022) Higher Maximum Temperature Increases the Frequency of Water Drinking in Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Frontiers Conservation Science 3, 738820.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1983) Diachronic changes in two eastern lowland gorilla groups in the Mt. Kahuzi region, Zaire. Primates 24, 174-183.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1986) Activity rhythm and the ranging of a solitary male mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Primates 27, 273-282.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1987) Intra- and inter-group interactions of an all-male group of mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Primates 28, 1-30.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1992) Functional analysis of social staring behavior in an all-male group of mountain gorillas. Primates 33, 523-544.

    Yamagiwa, J. (2006) Playful encounters: the development of homosexual behaviour in male mountain gorillas. Pp. 273-293 in: Sommer, V. & Vasey, P. L. (eds.) Homosexual behaviour in animals. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2003) Intra-specific variation in social organization of gorillas: implications for their social evolution. Primates 44, 359-369.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2009) Infanticide and social flexibility in the genus Gorilla. Primates 50, 293-303.

    Young, C. & Robbins, M. M. (2022) Association patterns of female gorillas. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 378, 20210429.

    Yuh, Y. G. et al. (2019) Effects of Land cover change on Great Apes distribution at the Lobéké National Park and its surrounding Forest Management Units, South-East Cameroon. A 13 year time series analysis. Scientific Reports 9 (1), 1445.

    Zucker, E. L. & Ferrera, P. S. (1990) Sociospatial relationships during gestation in captive lowland gorilla and orangutan groups. Der Zoologische Garten 60, 253-262.

  • Zoos

    Abelló, M. T. & Colell, M. (2006) The influence of maternal background on breeding success in gorillas. International Zoo News 53 (3), 144-153.

    Akers, J. S. & Schildkraut, D. S. (1985) Regurgitation/reingestion and coprophagy in captive gorillas. Zoo Biology 4, 99-109.

    Anon. (1991) Une expérience originale: des ascagnes chez les gorilles. L'espace zoologique St. Martin 21, 11.

    Aspinall, J. (1980) The husbandry of gorillas in captivity. J. Reprod. Fert., Suppl. 28, 71-77.

    Aspinall, J. (1986) The Howletts gorilla bands. Pp. 465-470 in: Benirschke, K. (ed.) Primates: The road to self-sustaining populations. New York (Springer).

    Beck, B. B. (1982) Fertility in North American male lowland gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, Suppl. 1, 7-11.

    Beck, B. B. & Power, M. L. (1988) Correlates of sexual and maternal competence in captive gorillas. Zoo Biology 7, 339-350.

    Bitgood, S. et al. (1988) Controlling public feeding of zoo animals. Visitor behavior 2 (4), 6.

    Bitgood, S. et al. (1986) Understanding your visitors: Ten factors that influence visitor behavior. AAZPA 1986 Ann. Proc., 726-743.

    Bloomsmith, M. A. (1989) Feeding enrichment for captive great apes. Pp. 336-356 in: Segal, E. F. (ed.) Housing, care and psychological wellbeing of captive and laboratory primates. Park Ridge (Noyes).

    Böer, M. (1983) Several examinations on the reproductive status of lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) at Hannover Zoo. Zoo Biology 2, 267-280.

    Bowen, R. A. (1981) Social integration in lowland gorillas. Dodo 18, 51-59.

    Clark, F. E. et al. (2012) Relationship Between Behavior, Adrenal Activity, and Environment in Zoo-Housed Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Zoo Biology 31, 306–321.

    Cousins, D. (1976) The breeding of gorillas in zoological collections. Der Zoologische Garten 46, 215-236.

    Cousins, D. (1976) A review of the diets of captive gorillas. Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 66, 91-100.

    Douglass, E. M. (1981) First gorilla born using artificial insemination. International Zoo News 28 (1), No. 170, 9-15.

    Edes, A. N. et al. (2016) Assessing Stress in Zoo-Housed Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Using Allostatic Load. Int. J. Primatol. 37, 241-259.

    Edes, A. N. et al. (2016) Rearing History and Allostatic Load in Adult Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Human Care. Zoo Biology 35, 167-173.

    Elsacker, L. van et al. (1990) Social integration of two adult Gorilla gorilla graueri into a group within a new facility. Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 81, 41-52.

    Enciso, A. E. et al. (1999) Social interactions between captive male and infant gorillas: implications regarding kin selection and zoo management. Zoo Biology 18, 53-62.

    Goerke, B. et al. (1987) Behavioral changes of a juvenile gorilla after a transfer to a more naturalistic environment. Zoo Biology 6, 283-295.

    Gould, E. & Bres, M. (1986) Regurgitation and reingestion in captive gorillas: description and intervention. Zoo Biology 5, 241-250.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1988) Bachelor groups of gorillas in captivity: the situation in the wild. Dodo 25, 54-61.

    Hill, C. A. (1966) Coprophagy in apes. Int. Zoo Yb. 6, 251-257.

    Hosey, G. R. & Druck, P. L. (1987) The influence of zoo visitors on the behaviour of captive primates. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 18, 19-29.

    Johnstone-Scott, R. (1984) Integration and management of a group of lowland gorillas at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. Dodo 21, 67-79.

    Kopff, H.-O. & Mager, W. B. (1989) Further developments in the breeding population of lowland gorillas at Apenheul. Zoo Biology 9, 165-170.

    Leeds, A. et al. (2015) The Effects of Group Type and Young Silverbacks on Wounding Rates in Western Lowland Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Groups in North American Zoos. Zoo Biology 34, 296-304.

    Lindburg, D. G. (1999) Zoos and the rights of animals. Zoo Biology 18, 433-448.

    Loeffler, D. G. (1982) Regurgitation and reingestion in captive lowland gorillas. Zoo Journal (Oklahoma) 6 (1).

    Mace, G. M. (1988) The genetic and demographic status of the western lowland gorilla in captivity. Journal of Zoology London 216, 629-654.

    Mace, G. M. (1990) Birth sex ratio and infant mortality rates in captive western lowland gorillas. Folia Primatologica 55, 156-165.

    Maple, T. L. & Warren-Leubecker, A. (1983) Variability in the parental conduct of captive great apes and some generalizations to humankind. Pp. 119-137 in: Reite, M. & Caine, N. G. (eds.) Child abuse: the nonhuman primate data. New York (Alan R. Liss).

    Meder, A. (1985) Integration of hand-reared gorilla infants in a group. Zoo Biology 4, 1-12.

    Meder, A. (1989) Effects of hand-rearing on the behavioral development of infant and juvenile gorillas. Developmental Psychobiology 22, 357-376.

    Meder, A. (1989) Rearing and reproductive success in captive lowland gorillas. In: Kirchshofer, R. International Studbook of the Gorilla, 1988. Frankfurt. Updated version in: Kirchshofer, R. International Studbook of the Gorilla, 1989. Frankfurt.

    Meder, A. (1990) Integration of hand-reared gorillas into breeding groups. Zoo Biology 9, 157-164.

    Meder A (1992) Effects of the environment on the behaviour of lowland gorillas in zoos. Primate Report 32, 167-183.

    Miller-Schroeder, P. & Paterson, J. D. (1989) Environmental influences on reproduction and maternal behavior in captive gorillas. Pp. 389-415 in: Segal, E. F. (ed.) Housing, care and psychological wellbeing of captive and laboratory primates. Park Ridge (Noyes Publications).

    Nadler, R. D. (1974) Determinants of variability in maternal behavior of captive female lowland gorillas. Proceedings of the 5th Congress of the Internatinal Primatological Society, Nagoya, 207-216.

    Nadler, R. D. (1980) Child abuse: evidence from nonhuman primates. Developmental Psychobiology 13, 507-512.

    Ogden, J. J. et al. (1989) Gorillas of Cameroon: A post-occupancy evaluation. AAZPA Reg. Conf. Proc. (1989), 557-563.

    Peel, A. J. et al. (2005) Non-invasive fecal hormone analysis and behavioral observations for monitoring stress responses in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Zoo Biology 24, 431-445.

    Pope C. E. et al. (1997) Birth of a western lowland gorilla following in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. American Journal of Primatology 41 (3), 247-260.

    Prince-Hughes, D. (2001) Gorillas among us. A primate ethnographer's book of days. Tucson (University of Arizona Press).

    Ross, S. R. et al. (2011) Space use selectivity by chimpanzees and gorillas in an indoor-outdoor enclosure. American Journal of Primatology 73, 197-208.

    Ryan, S. et al. (2002) Effects of hand-rearing on the reproductive success of western lowland gorillas in North America. Zoo Biology 21, 389-401.

    Sievert, J. et al. (1991) Reproductive intervals in captive female western lowland gorillas with a comparison to wild mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 24, 227-234.

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2001) A preliminary behavioral comparison of two captive all-male gorilla groups. Zoo Biology 20, 27-40.

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2001) Habitat use and structural preferences of captive western lowland gorillas: effects of environmental and social variables. International Journal of Primatology 22, 431-447.

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2002) Urinary androgen and corticoid levels in captive male western lowland gorillas: age- and social group-related differences. American Journal of Primatology 56, 73-87.

    Stoinski, T. S. et al. (2004) Factors influencing the formation and maintenance of all-male gorilla groups in captivity. Zoo Biology 23, 189-203.

    Tennant, K. S. et al. (2022) Prevalence of regurgitation and reingestion and occurrence of coprophagy in the North American AZA Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) population. Zoo Biology 41, 176-180.

    Thompson, V. D. (1984) Noncompliant behavior in zoo visitors. Zool. Garten 54, 177-190.

    Vermeer, J. et al. (2014) Progress in the Western lowland gorilla Gorilla gorilla gorilla European Endangered Species Programme: a review of the decade 2002-2011. International Zoo Yearbook 48 (1), 234-249.

    Vermeer, J. & Devreese, L. (2015) Birth sex ratio, infant mortality and rearing type in captive western lowland gorillas. Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 3 (1), 6-10.

    Vrancken, A. et al. (1990) Preliminary study on the influence of the visiting public on the spatial distribution in captive eastern lowland gorillas. Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 81, 9-15.

    Weghorst, J. A. & McGrew, W. C. (2000) Up where they belong? Habitat and activity budgets in two captive groups of western lowland gorillas. Zool. Garten 70, 273-284.

    Wells, D. L. (2005) A note on the influence of visitors on the behaviour and welfare of zoo-housed gorillas. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93, 13-17.

    White, M. (1999) An overview of the St. Louis bachelor group(s). Gorilla Gazette13 (1), 34-36.

    Wilson, S. F. (1982) Environmental influences on the activity of captive apes. Zoo Biology 1, 201-209.

PROTECTED AREAS

  • Bwindi

    Ahebwa et al. (2012) Tourism revenue sharing policy at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: a policy arrangements approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 20 (3), 377-394.

    Ashford R. W. et al. (1996) Patterns of intestinal parasitism in the mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla in the Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest, Uganda. Journal of Zoology 239 (3), 507-514.

    Baker, J. et al. (2011) Park gazettement and integrated conservation and development as factors in community conflict at Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda. Conservation Biology 26, 160-170.

    Butynski, T. M. (1985) Primates and their conservation in the Impenetrable (Bwindi) Forest, Uganda. Primate Conservation 6, 15-16.

    Butynski, T. M. & Kalina, J. (1990) Taxonomic status of gorillas in the Impenetrable (Bwindi) Forest, Uganda. American Zoologist 30 (4), 73A.

    Butynski, T. M. & Kalina, J. (1993) Three new mountain national parks for Uganda. Oryx 27, 214-224.

    Costa, R. F. P. et al. (2022) Mountain gorillas benefit from social distancing too: Close proximity from tourists affects gorillas' sociality. Conservation Science and Practice, e12859.

    Costa, R. et al. (2023) The impact of tourist visits on mountain gorilla behavior in Uganda. Journal of Ecotourism, 1-19.

    Elgart, A. A. (2010) Are the gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park "true" mountain gorillas? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141, 561-570.

    Ganas, J. & Robbins, M. M. (2005) Ranging behavior of the mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: a test of the ecological constraints model. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 58, 277-288.

    Ganas, J. et al. (2004) Dietary variability of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology 25, 1043-1072.

    Goldman, E. et al. 2015. Predicting Future Forest Loss in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s CARPE Landscapes. Technical Note. Washington, D.C. (World Resources Institute).

    Goldsmith, M. L. (2003) Comparative behavioral ecology of a lowland and highland gorilla population: where do Bwindi gorillas fit? Pp. 358-384 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Guschanski, K. et al. (2009) Counting elusive animals: Comparing field and genetic census of the entire mountain gorilla population of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Biological Conservation 142, 290-300.

    Hamilton, A. et al. (2000) Conservation in a region of political instability: Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda. Conservation Biology 14, 1722-1725.

    Hanes, A. C. et al. (2018) Assessment of Health Risks Posed by Tourists Visiting Mountain Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Primate Conservation 32, 123-132.

    Harcourt, A. H. (1981) Can Uganda's gorillas survive? A survey of the Bwindi Forest Reserve. Biological Conservation 19, 269-282.

    Hedwig, D. et al. (2015) Audience Effects, but not Environmental Influences, Explain Variation in Gorilla Close Distance Vocalizations - A Test of the Acoustic Adaptation Hypothesis. American Journal of Primatology 77, 1239-1252.

    Kalema-Zikusoka, G. et al. (2005) Intestinal parasites and bacteria of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Primates 46, 59-63.

    Laudati, A. (2010) Ecotourism: the modern predator? Implications of gorilla tourism on local livelihoods in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Environment and Planning D: Society & Space 28 (4), 726-743.

    Laudati, A. (2010) The encroaching forest: struggles overland and resources on the boundary of Bwindi Impentrable National Park, Uganda. Society and Natural Resources 23, 776-789.

    McNeilage, A. et al. (2001) Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: gorilla census 1997. Oryx 35, 39-47.

    McNeilage, A. et al. (2006) Census of the mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei population in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Oryx 40, 419-427.

    Mudakikwa, A. (2001) An outbreak of mange hits the Bwindi gorillas. Gorilla Journal 22, 24.

    Muresherwa, G. et al. (2022) The management of mountain gorilla tourism in Uganda: Are the socio-economic benefits realised? J. transdiscipl. res. S. Afr. 18 (1), a1136.

    Muylaert, R. L. et al. (2021) Community health and human-animal contacts on the edges of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. PLoS ONE 16 (11), e0254467.

    Nkurunungi, J. B. et al. (2004) A comparison of two mountain gorilla habitats in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 42, 289-297.

    Ostrofsky, K. R. & Robbins, M. M. (2020) Fruit-feeding and activity patterns of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2020, 1-18 (early view).

    Pitman, C. R. S. (1935) The gorillas of the Kayonsa region, western Kigezi, S. W. Uganda. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1935, 477-494.

    Robbins, M. M. (2008) Feeding competition and agonistic relationships among Bwindi Gorilla beringei. International Journal of Primatology 29, 999-1018.

    Robbins, M. M. & McNeilage, A. (2003) Home range and frugivory patterns of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology 24, 467-491.

    Robbins, M. M. & Robbins, A. M. (2021) Variability of weaning age in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 174 (4): ajpa.24237, 776-784.

    Robbins, M. M. & Sawyer, S. C. (2007) Intergroup encounters in mountain gorillas of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Behaviour 144, 1497-1519.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2009) Population dynamics of the Bwindi mountain gorillas. Biological Conservation 142, 2886-2895.

    Robbins, M. M. et al. (2019) Dispersal and reproductive careers of male mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda Primates 60 (2), 133-142.

    Rothman, J. M. et al. (2006) Decaying wood is a sodium source for mountain gorillas. Biology letters 2, 321-324.

    Rothman, J. M. et al. (2006) Plant choice in the construction of night nests by gorillas in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. American Journal of Primatology 68, 361-368.

    Rwego, I. B. et al. (2008) Gastrointestinal bacterial transmission among humans, mountain gorillas, and livestock in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Conservation Biology 22, 1600-1607.

    Sandbrook, C. (2010) Putting leaking in its place: the significance of retained tourism revenue in the local context in rural Uganda. Journal of International Development 22, 124-136.

    Sandbrook, C. & Semple, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringeitracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433.

    Sarmiento, E. E. et al. (1996) Gorillas of Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest and the Virunga Volcanoes: Taxonomic implications of morphological and ecological differences. American Journal of Primatology 40, 1-21.

    Seiler, N. & Robbins, M. M. (2015) Factors Influencing Ranging on Community Land and Crop Raiding by Mountain Gorillas. Animal Conservation.

    Seiler, N. et al. (2017) Space partitioning in wild, non-territorial mountain gorillas: The impact of food and neighbours. Royal Society Open Science 4 (11), 1-13.

    Seiler, N. et al. (2018) Social and ecological correlates of space use patterns in Bwindi mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 80 (4), e22754.

    Stanford, C. B. & Nkurunungi, J. B. (2003) Behavioral ecology of sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: diet. International Journal of Primatology 24, 901-918.

    Strona, G. et al. (2018) Small room for compromise between oil palm cultivation and primate conservation in Africa. PNAS 115 (35) 8811-8816.

    Tolbert, S. et al. (2019) The Perceived Benefits of Protected Areas in the Virunga-Bwindi Massif. Environmental Conservation 46, Special Issue 1, 76-83.

    Weber, A. et al. (2020) Lack of Rule-Adherence During Mountain Gorilla Tourism Encounters in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, Places Gorillas at Risk From Human Disease. Frontiers of Public Health 8, 1.

    Wright, E. & Robbins, M. M. (2014) Proximate mechanisms of contest competition among female Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 68 (11), 1785-1797.

    Wright, E. et al. (2014) Dominance rank differences in the energy intake and expenditure of female Bwindi mountain gorillas. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 68 (6), 957-970.

  • Cross River region

    Akenji, L et al. (2019) Community-Based Monitoring of Cross River Gorillas in South West Region, Cameroon. African Primates 13, 29-38.

    Anadu, P. A. (1987) Prospects for conservation of forest primates in Nigeria. Primate Conservation 8, 154-159.

    Bergl, R. A. & Vigilant, L. (2007) Genetic analysis reveals population structure and recent migration within the highly fragmented range of the Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli). Molecular Ecology 16, 501-516.

    Bergl, R. A. et al. (2008) Effects of habitat fragmentation, population size and gemographic history on genetic diversity: the Cross River gorilla in a comparative context. American Journal of Primatology 70, 848-859.

    Bergl, R. A. et al. (2012) Remote sensing analysis reveals habitat, dispersal corridors and expanded distribution for the Critically Endangered Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli. Oryx 46, 278-289.

    Effiom, E. O. et al. (2013) Bushmeat hunting changes regeneration of African rainforests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280, 20130246.

    Eniang, Edem A. (2001) The role of the Cross River National Park in gorilla conservation. Gorilla Journal 22, 25-26.

    Etiendem, D. N. et al. (2013) The Cross River Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli) at Mawambi Hills, South-West Cameroon: Habitat Suitability and Vulnerability to Anthropogenic Disturbance. Folia Primatologica 84, 18–31.

    Groves, J. L. (1999) Gorillas in the Takamanda Forest Reserve. Gorilla Journal 18, 17-18.

    Groves, J. (2001) Gorillas of Takamanda, Mone and Mbulu Forest, Cameroon. Gorilla Journal 22, 27-29.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1989) Nigeria's Gorillas. Primate Conservation 10.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1989) Gorilla quest in Nigeria. Oryx 23.

    Harcourt, A. H. et al. (1988) Conservation status of gorillas in Nigeria. Primate Eye 35, 26-27.

    Harris, D. et al. (1987) Report of gorillas from Nigeria. Primate Conservation 8, 40.

    Imong, I. S. et al. (2014) Distinguishing ecological constraints from human activity in species range fragmentation: The case of Cross River gorillas. Animal Conservation 17 (4), 323-331.

    Imong, I. S. et al. (2014) Informing conservation management about structural versus functional connectivity: A case-study of Cross River gorillas. American Journal of Primatology 76 (10), 978-988.

    Kotch, N. (1988) The gorillas of eastern Nigeria. Swara (East African Wildlife Society) 11(3), 25-27.

    March, E. W. (1957) Gorillas of Eastern Nigeria. Oryx 4, 30-34.

    Moffat & Linden (1995) Perception and reality: assessing priorities for sustainable development in the Niger river delta. Ambio 24.

    Nicholas, A. et al. (2010) Successes in Community-Based Monitoring of Cross River Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli) in Cameroon. African Primates 7 (1), 55-60.

    Nkemnyi, M. F. et al. (2013) Making hard choices: balancing indigenous communities livelihood and Cross River gorilla conservation in the Lebialem–Mone Forest landscape, Cameroon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, online November 2012.

    Oates J. F. (1991) New plans for the conservation of Nigerian gorillas. Gorilla Conserv. News 5, 13-15.

    Oates, J. F. et al. (2003) The Cross River gorilla: natural history and status of a neglected and critically endangered subspecies. Pp. 472-497 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Oates, J. F. et al. (2004) Africa's Gulf of Guinea forests: biodiversity patterns and conservation priorities. Advances in Applied Biodiversity Science 6. Washington, DC (Conservation International).

    Sarmiento, E. E. & Oates, J. F. (1999) Eigene Gorilla-Unterart in Nigeria? Cross River gorillas - a neglected subspecies. Gorilla Journal 19.

    Sarmiento, E. E. & Oates, J. F. (2000) The Cross River Gorillas: A Distinct Subspecies, Gorilla gorilla diehli Matschie 1904. American Museum Novitates 3304.

    Sunderland-Groves, J. L. et al. (2003) Surveys of the Cross River gorilla and chimpanzee populations in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. Pp. 129-140 in: Comiskey, J. A. et al. (eds.) Takamanda: the biodiversity of an African rainforest. SI/MAB Series 8. Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian Institution).

    van der Valk, T. et al. (2019) Historical Genomes Reveal the Genomic Consequences of Recent Population Decline in Eastern Gorillas. Current Biology 29, 165-170.

    Wright, J. H. & Priston, N. E. C. (2010) Hunting and trapping in Lebialem Division, Cameroon: bushmeat harvesting practices and human reliance. Endangered Species Research (1), 1-12.

  • Itombwe

    Collar, N. J. & Stuart, S. N. (1988) Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. IGBP Monograph 3.

    Doumenge, C. (1998) Forest diversity, distribution, and dynamique in the Itombwe mountain, South-Kivu, Congo Democratic Republic. Mountain Research and Development 18, 249-264.

    Doumenge, C. & Schilter, C. (eds.) (1997) Les Monts Itombwe: d’une enquête environnementale et socio-économique à la planification des interventions au Zaïre. UICN, Gland, Suisse.

    Hart, J. A. et al. (1999) The Itombwe Massif, Democratic Republic of Congo: biological surveys and conservation, with an emphasis on Grauer's gorilla and birds endemic to the Albertine Rift. Oryx 33, 301-322.

    Kujirakwinja, D. et al. (2019) Establishing the Itombwe Natural Reserve: science, participatory consultations and zoning. Oryx 53 (1), 49-57.

    Laurent, R. F. (1964) Adaptive modifications in frogs in an isolated highland fauna in Central Africa. Evolution 18, 458-467.

    Mubalama, L. et al. (2008) Using GIS to assess the status and conservation considerations of large mammals in the Itombwe Massif Conservation Landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo. Nature et Faune 23, 43-50.

    Mubalama, L. et al. (2013) L'approche cadre conjoint comme stratégie de délimitation participative du massif forestier d'Itombwe et du Bushema. S. 246-258 in: Isumbisho, M. (Hrsg.) Gouvernance des ressources naturelles collectives des écosystèmes fragiles dans la Région des Grands Lacs Africains. CERUKI. HAL.

    Omari, I. et al. (1999) The Itombwe Massif, Democratic Republic of Congo: biological surveys and conservation, with an emphasis on Grauer's gorilla and birds endemic to the Albertine Rift. Oryx 33, 301-322.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2016) Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. PLoS ONE 11 (10): e0162697.

    Prigogine, A. (1971) Les oiseaux de l'Itombwe et de son hinterland. Vol. 1. Ann. Musée Royal Afrique Centrale, Tervuren. Serie 8, Sci. Zoo no. 185.

    Prigogine, A. (1977) The composition of Itombwe forest's avifauna. Bonn. Zool. Beitr. Heft, 28 (3-4), 369-383.

    Prigogine, A. (1978) Les oiseaux de l'Itombwe et de son hinterland, Vol. 2. Annales du Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Serie 6, Sciences Zoologiques, No. 228.

    Prigogine, A. (1984) Les oiseaux de l'Itombwe et de son hinterland. Vol. 3. Ann. Musée Royal Afrique Centrale, Tervuren. Serie 8, Sci. Zoo no. 243.

    Spira, S. et al. (2019) The socio-economics of artisanal mining and bushmeat hunting around protected areas: Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Itombwe Nature Reserve, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Oryx 53 (1), 136-144.

    Wilson, J. R. & Catsis, M. C. (1990) A preliminary survey of the forests of the "Itombwe" Mountains and the Kahuzi-Biega National Park Extension, East Zaire, July-September 1989. WWF/IZCN/FFPS.

  • Kahuzi-Biega

    Casimir, M. J. (1975) Feeding ecology and nutrition of an eastern gorilla group in the Mt. Kahuzi region (République de Zaire). Folia Primatologica 24, 81-136.

    Casimir, M. J. (1975) Some data on the systematic position of the eastern gorilla population of the Mt. Kahuzi region (Rep. of Zaire). Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie 66, 188-201.

    Casimir, M. J. (1979) An analysis of gorilla nesting sites of the Mt. Kahuzi region (Zaire). Folia Primatologica 32, 290-308.

    Casimir, M. J. & Butenandt, E. (1973) Migration and core area shifting in relation to some ecological factors in a mountain gorilla group in the Mt. Kahuzi region. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 33, 514-522.

    Eilenberger, U. (1997) Individual group specific and ecological influence factors on the status of endoparasites of wild eastern lowland gorillas in Zaire. Primate Report 47, 89-93.

    Goodall, A. G. (1977) Feeding and ranging behaviour of a mountain gorilla group in the Tshibinda-Kahuzi region (Zaire) Pp. 449-479 in: Clutton-Brock, T. H. (ed.) Primate ecology. London (Academic Press).

    Inogwabini, B.-I. et al. (2000) Status of large mammals in the mountain sector of Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, in 1996. African Journal of Ecology 38, 269-276.

    Isumbisho, P. M. et al. (2023) Customary Rights and the New Conservation Paradigm in the Context of the Conflict in Kahuzi Biega National Park in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources 6 (1).

    Kasereka, B. et al. (2006) Vulnerability of habituated Grauer's gorilla to poaching in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, DRC. African Study Monographs 27 (1), 15-26.

    Murnyak, D. F. (1981) Censusing the gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park. Biological Conservation 21,163-176.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2016) Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. PLoS ONE 11 (10), e0162697.

    Plumptre, A. J. et al. (2021) Changes in Grauer's gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) and other primate populations in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Oku Community Reserve, the heart of Grauer's gorilla global range. American Journal of Primatology 83 (7), e23288.

    Simpson, F. O. & Geenen, S. (2021) Batwa return to their Eden? Intricacies of violence and resistance in eastern DRCongo's Kahuzi-Biega National Park, The Journal of Peasant Studies.

    Spira, S. et al. (2019) The socio-economics of artisanal mining and bushmeat hunting around protected areas: Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Itombwe Nature Reserve, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Oryx 53 (1), 136-144.

    Spira, S. et al. (2019) Understanding ranger motivation and job satisfaction to improve wildlife protection in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Oryx 53 (3), 460-468.

    Wina, E. (1989) Observations on the nesting of eastern lowland gorillas Gorilla gorilla graueri at the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 97-101.

    Yamagiwa, J. (1983) Diachronic changes in two eastern lowland gorilla groups in the Mt. Kahuzi region, Zaire. Primates 24, 174-183.

    Yamagiwa, J. (2001) Factors influencing the formation of ground nests by eastern lowland gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park: some evolutionary implications of nesting behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 40, 99-109.

    Yamagiwa, J. (2003) Bushmeat poaching and the conservation crisis in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Pp. 115-135 in: Price, S. V. (ed.) War and tropical forests. New York (Food Products Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. (2006) Diet and seasonal changes in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees at Kahuzi-Biega National Park. Primates 47, 74-90.

    Yamagiwa, J. & Kahekwa, J. (2009) Infanticide and social flexibility in the genus Gorilla. Primates 50, 293-303.

    Yamagiwa, J. & Mwanza, N. (1994) Day-journey length and daily diet of solitary male gorillas in lowland and highland habitats. International Journal of Primatology 15, 207-224.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1989) A preliminary study on sympatric populations of Gorilla g. graueri and Pan t. schweinfurthii in eastern Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 23-40.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1991) Ant eating by eastern lowland gorillas. Primates 32, 247-253.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1992) Travel distances and food habits of eastern lowland gorillas: A comparative analysis. Pp. 267-281 in: Itoigawa, M. et al. (eds.) Topics in Primatology Vol. 2: Behavior, ecology and conservation. Tokyo (Univ. of Tokyo Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1993) A census of the eastern lowland gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park with reference to mountain gorillas in the Virunga region. Biological Conservation 64, 83-89.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1994) Seasonal change in the composition of the diet of eastern lowland gorillas. Primates 35, 1-14.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (1996) Dietary and ranging overlap in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire. Pp. 82-98 in: McGrew, W. et al. (eds.) Great ape societies. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2003) Within-group feeding competition and socioecological factors influencing social organization of gorillas in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Pp. 328-357 in: Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L. (eds.) Gorilla biology. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2005) Diet of Grauer's gorillas in the Montane Forest of Kahuzi, Democratic Republic of Congo. International Journal of Primatology 26, 1345-1373.

    Yamagiwa, J. et al. (2012) Long-term research on Grauer’s gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, DRC: life history, foraging strategies, and ecological differentiation from sympatric chimpanzees. Pp. 385–412 in: Kappeler, P. M. & Watts, D. P. (eds.) Long-term field studies of primates. Berlin, Heidelberg (Springer).

    Yumoto, T. et al. (1989) Feeding habit of primates in the tropical forests of eastern Zaire. Interspecies relationships of primates in the tropical and montane forests 1, 41-51.

  • Mt. Tshiaberimu

    Butynski, T. M. & Sarmiento, E. E. (1995): On the brink: Gorilla of Mont Tshiaberimu, Zaire. Kenya Past and present 27 (1), 17-20.

    Kasika, L. et al. (2011) Etude de l'Influence de l'activité humaine sur les aires protégées en Territoire de Beni et Lubero: cas du mont Tshiabirimu"secteur Nord du Parc National de Virunga" en République Démocratique du Congo. Parcours et Initiatives Vol. 9, 92-124.

    Katembo Mushengezi, V. (1998) Progress report on Mt. Tshiaberimu conservation activities. Gorilla Journal 17.

    Kyungu, K. J.-C. et al. (2013) Contribution to the analysis of the viability of a small gorilla population, Gorilla beringei graueri (Hominidae, Primates), by modeling and simulations of the Mount Tshiabirimu ecosystem, Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Résumés du 26e colloque de la SFDP (Kinshasa, 4-11 Novembre, 2013). Revue de primatologie (online), 5/2013, document 24.

    Kyungu, K. J.-C. et al. (2019)Impacts des pressions anthropiques sur l'habitat de la population de gorilles de Grauer dans le Grand Paysage Virunga: comprendre les origines des pressions sur l'habitat des gorilles de Tshiabirimu (République Démocratique Du Congo). IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS).

    Ngbolua, K. et al. (2014) Phytochemical investigation and TLC screening for antioxidant activity of 24 plant species consumed by the Eastern Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla beringei ssp. graueri : Hominidae, Primates) endemic to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Journal of Advancement in Medical and Life Sciences 1 (3), 1-6.

    Sarmiento E. E. & Butynski, T. M. (1997) Population and Habitat Viability (PHV) for Gorilla gorilla beringei: Preliminary report on the Mt Tshiaberimu survey, June 28-July 17. Kampala Uganda.

    Sarmiento, E. E. & Butynski, T. M. (1998) Preliminary report on the survey of Mt. Tshiaberimu, Democratic Republic of Congo. Gorilla Conservation News 12, 10.12.

  • Virunga Volcanoes

    Aveling, C. & Aveling, R. (1989) Gorilla conservation in Zaire. Oryx 23 (2), 64-70.

    Aveling, C. & Harcourt, A. H. (1984) A census of the Virunga gorillas. Oryx 18 (1), 8-13.

    Aveling, R. & Aveling, C. (1987) Report from the Zaire gorilla conservation project. Primate Conservation 8, 162-164.

    Baumgärtel, W. (1958) The Muhavura gorillas. Primates 1, 79-83.

    Baumgärtel, W. (1959) The last British gorillas. Geographical Magazine, London, 32, 32-41.

    Baumgärtel, W. (1976) Up among the mountain gorillas. New York (Hawthorn Books).

    Beringe, R. von (1903) Bericht des Hauptmanns von Beringe über seine Expedition nach Ruanda. Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 234-235, 264-266, 296-298, 317-319.

    Bernhard, K. P. (2021) Effects of integrated conservation–development projects on unauthorized resource use in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda: a mixed-methods spatio-temporal approach. Oryx 55 (4), 613-624.

    Bradley, B. J. et al. (2005) Mountain gorilla tug-of-war: silverbacks have limited control over reproduction in multimale groups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 102 (26), 9418-9423.

    Butynski, T. (1991) Status, distribution and conservation of the mountain gorilla in the gorilla game reserve, Uganda. Gorilla Conservation News 5, 26-27.

    Byers, A. C. & Hastings, B. (1991) Mountain gorilla mortality and climatic factors in the Parc National des Volcans, Ruhengeri Prefecture, Rwanda, 1988. Mountain research and development 11 (2), 145-151.

    Byrne, R. W. & Byrne, J. M. E. (1993) Complex leaf-gathering skills of mountain gorillas: variability and standardization. American Journal of Primatology 31, 241-261.

    Byrne, R. W. et al. (2001) Estimating the complexity of animal behaviour: how mountain gorillas eat thistles. Behaviour 138, 525-557.

    Caillaud, D. et al. (2014) Mountain Gorilla Ranging Patterns: Influence of Group Size and Group Dynamics. American Journal of Primatology 76 (8), 730-746.

    Caillaud, D. et al. (2020) Violent encounters between social units hinder the growth of a high-density mountain gorilla population. Science Advances 6 (45), eaba0724.

    Cancelliere,  E. C. et al. (2014) Minerals in the Foods Eaten by Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei). PLoS ONE 9 (11), e112117.

    Caro, T. M. (1976) Observations on the ranging behaviour and daily activity of lone silverback mountain gorillas. Anim. Behav. 24, 889-897.

    Czekala, N. & Sicotte, P. (2000) Reproductive monitoring of free-ranging female mountain gorillas by urinary hormone analysis. American Journal of Primatology 51, 209-215.

    Donisthorpe, J. (1958) A pilot study of the mountain gorilla. South African Journal of Science 54, 195-217.

    Eckardt, W. et al. (2016) Weaned age variation in the Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): influential factors. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 70, 493-507.

    Eckardt, W. et al. (2019) Social and ecological factors alter stress physiology of Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Ecology and Evolution 9 (9), 5248-5259.

    Emlen, J. T. & Schaller, G. B. (1960) Distribution and status of the mountain gorilla, 1959. Zoologica New York 45, 41-52.

    Fossey, D. (1970) Making friends with mountain gorillas. National Geographical Magazine 137, 48-67.

    Fossey, D. (1971) More years with mountain gorillas. National Geographic Magazine 140, 574-585.

    Fossey, D. (1972) Vocalisations of the mountain gorilla. Animal Behaviour 20, 36-53.

    Fossey, D. (1974) Observations on the home range of one group of mountain gorillas. Animal behaviour 22, 568-581.

    Fossey, D. (1979) Development of the mountain gorilla: The first thirty-six months. Pp. 139-184 in: The great apes, D. A. Hamburg & E. McCown (eds.). Menlo Park (Benjamin/Cummings).

    Fossey, D. (1982) Reproduction among free-living mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, Suppl. 1, 97-104.

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