Impacts of Habituation for Ecotourism on the Gorillas of Nkuringo
The gorillas of Bwindi have been habituated for ecotourism in the region
of Buhoma since April of 1993. The original Mubare group is still intact
and continues to be visited daily by tourists. Another original group,
Katendegyere, disappeared from the area and was later replaced by the
large Habinyanja group, which has since fissioned (one group retains the
original name while the other is called Akatale). Tourism was proposed
for a fourth group, Nkuringo, in an area outside of Buhoma (a 6-hour walk
southeast of Buhoma). Although started in 1996, habituation was not complete
until 1998 and "mock" tourism was not implemented until April
2004.
My research team began studying the impacts of habituation on the behavioural
ecology of this group in 1999, but our work was cut short by the massacre
in Buhoma in March of that year. We began again in July 2001 and have
been following the Nkuringo group on almost a daily basis since. My aim
in this report is not to present scientific data as they will appear elsewhere
but to report on some of the experiences from the past 4 years and to
provide recommendations for improvement of gorilla well-being.
The main issue of well-being in this group (as well as those in Buhoma)
is that after they lose their fear of humans they begin to use of areas
outside the park boundary, which can influence both their health and behaviour.
With regard to health, studies emphasize the need for more precautions
(e.g., Homsy 1999; Woodford et al. 2002) as habituated gorilla groups
have been shown to have increased endo- and ecto-parasitic loads (Graczyk
et al. 2001; Nizeyi et al. 2001) and complications with respiratory infections
and measles (Hastings et. al. 1991). With regard to behavioural changes,
little research has been conducted due to tight restrictions of visitation
to these groups and a policy of "no research" on tourist gorilla
groups. This has changed recently as managers and government wildlife
officials start recognizing the need for this information. The first such
study on direct impacts of actual tourist visits was recently conducted
in Volcanoes National Park (Steklis et al. 2004). Among other findings,
they demonstrated that tourist gorilla groups spent significantly more
time moving at the expense of feeding when tourists were with the gorillas.
A similar study has since been conducted in Buhoma and is in progress
on the Nkuringo group.
group range: information by the author
Our data demonstrate that Nkuringo spends most of their time outside
the park boundary (76% of their nest sites) and although rules and regulations
exist for tourism purposes (to reduce potential contact between gorillas
and humans) they may not be strict enough (Homsy 1999) and they are not
always followed in the Virungas (McNeilage 1996) or Bwindi (Macfie 1997).
An even less controlled situation exists regarding contact with local
people living in surrounding communities. In Bwindi, gorilla groups used
for tourism live close to the park edge; a decision made to reduce impact
of the park by providing most of its infrastructure outside the boundary.
The area surrounding Bwindi in southwestern Uganda, however, maintains
one of the highest densities of rural human habitation (about 200-300
people per km²) and one of the highest population growth rates in
the world (ranging from 1.7 to 4.5% in some districts; Ministry of Planning
and Economic Development 1997). In addition, agricultural land abuts the
park boundary as there was no buffer zone present during most of this
study. This means that if gorillas venture out of the park there is a
high likelihood there will be problems with health, safety, crop raiding,
tourism (as most tourists are dissatisfied with watching gorillas in people's
fields), and relations between local people and park officials.
During our study, gorillas devastated many banana plantations and also
fed on eucalyptus and sweet potato. It was up to the rangers (or the HUGO
- Human Gorilla Conflict Force - team) to chase them out of the
fields, which increased risks of aggressive encounters. We also often
found gorilla and human dung in close association (e.g., a knuckle print
was found in one specimen of human dung). The human dung was loaded with
nematodes. Baboons also use these areas and a preliminary analysis found
that both gorillas and baboons share many parasites (Hope et al. 2004).
Most were of bovine origin, which is not surprising as cattle graze within
these areas. It would be interesting to include humans in this equation.
While outside the park, the gorillas also tended to nest on and near watersheds,
resulting in large amounts of dung entering water sources. The preference
for these areas may be problematic in that it can contaminate drinking
water and pollute water flowing into the Kashasha River.
Although Nkuringo tended to stay within 400 m outside the park boundary,
they did sometimes venture far, a few times nesting near the main road
in the town of Ntungamo (at least 1.2 km from the park boundary). When
far from the park or raiding crops, they were often scared off and chased,
which could increase stress levels. In addition, the Nkuringo group has
suffered chronically from scabies infections that require veterinary intervention.
Each intervention resulted in increased path length and more than likely
contributed to stress.
Hopefully, data on how habituation influences habitat use will be useful
in implementing full tourism on this group in the future. In fact, GIS
maps from this study have been used by UWA (Ugandan Wildlife Authority)
and IGCP (International Gorilla Conservation Programme) to help
determine where tourist facilities should be set up to ease impact on
the group. In addition, past study reports had recommended the implementation
of a buffer zone, which has since been completed. Although these 350 extra
meters are beneficial, it is important to note that gorillas do range
more than 1 km outside the park boundary. Proper management of this zone,
which is still in consideration after more than a year that it has been
in place, is crucial to keep the gorillas from exiting this area and once
again entering agricultural fields. During my last field season in June/July
2004, the buffer zone was being used heavily by Nkuringo. As they used
this area they were allowed to feed on and destroy the crop plants (mostly
bananas) that had been left behind by the farmers who had moved out. Rangers
made little effort to chase the group as this region was now considered
a continuation of the park. This is unfortunate. Whereas the gorillas
were continually chased in the past, they were now free to eat in peace.
Once these plants within the buffer zone are gone, what is to stop them
from leaving the zone, once again, to raid fields abutting the zone? It
is recommended that rangers continue to chase gorillas from these areas
until management can cut down and remove all crop plants within the buffer
zone.
Daily monitoring of the group has many benefits, including the keeping
of health reports on each individual. As mentioned above, this group has
suffered chronically from scabies, which is monitored by the rangers and
treated by veterinarians. The reporting of health issues is extremely
helpful; however, reports are not always followed to their fullest. When
I was last in Bwindi a 5-month-old infant died and then her mother was
found dead one month later. Neither body was collected for necropsy nor
was a thorough investigation into the cause of death conducted. When I
left a few days after the female's death, 4 gorillas in the group were
coughing. It is recommended that Bwindi managers devise a protocol for
health reports and necropsy as one contagious illness could devastate
the entire population. Long-term health reports on individuals should
be kept and each death should result in an extensive necropsy which should
include tissue collection and storage. (UWA may also want to consider
donating each skeleton and skull to museums and/or universities in Uganda
or other countries as a wealth of information is lost with each individual.)
A major health threat that has not received enough attention is the presence
and traveling of army personnel in the area. Since the massacre, the army
escorts all visits to the gorillas. Over 100 soldiers are stationed in
the Nteko area. During my last field season, we witnessed over 75 soldiers
on their journey to Nteko as they walked right through the Nkuringo group,
which was spread across the most popular footpath right outside the park
boundary. We were fortunate to be there with rangers who were able to
make their passage safe. Many, if not all of the men in the army, have
never seen a gorilla and it is frightening to think what would have happened
if one of the gorillas had charged any of the gun-carrying soldiers. We
also found them sleeping, cooking, urinating and defecating along the
trail as we headed back to camp. Although I understand there is some training
for army personnel in relation to gorillas, these troops had not been
briefed. It is strongly recommend that all army personnel be trained or
be led by UWA rangers before they travel in the park.
Within the Nkuringo area, conservation issues abound. When gorillas come
out of the forest they threaten their own health as well as the health
of the surrounding human population. By collecting data on when and why
gorillas come outside of the park, we can equip local managers with information
on how to reduce the occurrence. By examining the impacts of habituation
for ecotourism, we can better protect and manage greatly endangered populations.
We must always keep in mind that the benefits of tourism to the gorillas
must always outweigh the costs.
Michele L. Goldsmith
I gratefully acknowledge the National Geographic Society, UWA, the Ugandan National Council of Science and Technology, IGCP, ITFC (Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation), my hard working and dedicated research assistants (especially Joel Glick and Evarist Ngabarino), and the wonderfully skillful and patient rangers of Nkuringo.
References
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scabiei (Acariformes: Sarcoptidae) in juvenile human-habituated mountain
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Hastings, B. E. et al. (1991) Mountain gorillas and measles: Ontogeny
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Dr. Michele L. Goldsmith spent 2 years studying the behavioral ecology of gorillas at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. She is now Post-Doctoral Fellow in the Dept. of Anthropology at Dartmouth College. Since December 1996 she has been studying the behavioral ecology of sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Bwindi.